EXCHANGE 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Township 

District,  ConsoHdated,  Town  and 

City  School    A  Indiana 


BY 

LESTER  BURTON  ROGERS,  A.M. 

Professor  of  Education,  Lawrence  College 

Appleton,  Wisconsin 

Research  Scholar,  Teachers  College,  1910-11 


Submitted   in    partial   fulfillment    of    the    requirements   for 

TEE  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy,  in  the  Faculty 

OF  Philosophy,  Columbia  University 


GEoaoE  Banta  Publishing  Company 
Menasha,  Wisconsin 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/comparativestudyOOrogerich 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Township 

District,  ConsoUdated,  Town  and 

City  Schools  of  Indiana 


BY 

LESTER  BURTON  ROGERS,  A.M. 

Professor  of  Education^  Lawrence  College 

Appleton,  Wisconsin 

Research  Scholar,  Teachers  College,  1910-11 


Submitted   in    partial   fulfillment    of    the    requirements  for 

THE  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy,  in  the  Faculty 

OF  Philosophy,  Columbia  University 


Georoe  Banta  Pubushing  Company 
Men  ASH  A,  Wisconsin 


/ 


Copyright  1915 
By  Lester  Burton  Rogers 


l^  l.rl'1  '. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Chapter  I. — Introduction  page 

Current  opinions  concerning  rural  education  and  consolidation.  2.  Pur- 
pose of  this  investigation.  3.  Selection  and  distribution  of  school 
corporations  investigated.  4.  Original  data.  5.  Definition  of  terms. 
6.  System  of  organization  and  administration.  7.  Statistical  method 
employed. .  .1 i 

Chapter   II. — School    Plants 
Basis  for  comparison.    2.  Original  data  presented.    3.  Comparison  of 
the  different  types  of  schools.     4.  Recent  legislation  relative  to  the 
sanitation    of    school    buildings.      5.    Standards    applied    to    existing 
schools > 14 

Chapter  III. — Teachers 
Legal  qualifications.     2.   Sex.     3.  Grade  teachers;     (a)     Professional 
training,    (b)    Experience,     (c)    Classification  and   salary.     4.   High 
School  teachers;  (a)  Professional  training,  (b)  Experience,  (c)  Sal- 
ary.   5.  Special  teachers ;    (a)  Number  and  distribution,  (b)  Salary.,     y? 

Chapter  IV. — Enrichment  of  Curricula 
The  /course  of  study  as  an  index  of  the  work  of  the  school.     2.  The 
state  course  of  study.    3.  Legal  requirements.    4.  Extent  of  the  use 
of  the  state  manual.    5.  Local  courses  of  study 7Z 

Chapter  V. — Supervision 
Supervisory  staffs.    2.  Nature  and  extent  of  the  supervision  of  instruc- 
tion.     3.    Professional    improvement    of    teachers    in    the    service. 
4.  Medical  inspection.     5.  School  and  community  activities 80 

Chapter  VI. — School  Statistics 
Original  data.    2.  Changes  in  population.    3.  School  census.    4.  Enroll- 
ment.   5.  Average  daily  attendance.    6.  Length  of  school  year 92 

Chapter  VII. — School  Finances — Receipts 
Basis  of  support  of  schools.  2.  Distribution  of  state  tax.  3.  Distribu- 
tion of  county  and  local  levies  and  wealth  per  capita  school  population. 
4.  Relation  of  wealth  per  capita  and  tax  levies.  5.  Tuition  receipts. 
6.  Distribution  of  the  Common  School  Fund.  7.  Results  obtained  by 
use  of  teacher-average-daily-attendance  basis 103 

Chapter  VIII. — School  Finances — Expenditures 
Distribution  of  expenditures.     2.  Relation  of  expenditures  to  wealth 
per  capita  and  tax  levies.     3.  Distribution  of  expenditures  in  the 
corporations  spending  more  than  the  average  for  the  group 152 

Chapter  IX. — Summary  and  Conclusion 
Application  of   facts  revealed  to  the  claims   made   for  consolidated 
schools.    2.  Needs  for  reorganization.     3.  Suggestions  for  reorgani- 
zation.    4.  The  effect  of   reorganization   on   the  different  types  of 
schools.     5.  Conclusion 201 

iii 

327798 


LIST  OF  TABLES 

TABLES  PAGE 

I-IV     Buildings,  sanitation  and  equipment  in  the  four  types 

of  schools 15-26 

V     Summary  of  statistics  on  school  plants 28 

VI-IX     Distribution  of  grade  teachers  on  basis  of  sex,  pro- 
fessional training,  experience,  rank  and  salary....       40-47 
X     Summary  of  distribution  of  grade  teachers  on  basis 

of   sex 48 

XI     Summary  of  distribution  of  grade  teachers  on  basis 

of  professional  training 49 

XII     Percentile  distribution  of  teachers  on  basis  of  training  49 

XIII  Distribution  of  grade  teachers  on  basis  of  experience  54 

XIV  Percentile  distribution  of  grade  teachers  in  periods  of 

years   of  experience 55 

XV     Distribution  of  grade  teachers  on  basis  of  rank  and 

salary 55 

XVI     Salaries  of  all  grade  teachers  in  the  four  types  of 

schools  compared  with  salaries  in  earlier  years...  56 

XVII-XIX     Distribution  of  high  school  teachers  on  basis  of  sex, 

training,  experience  and  salary 58-60 

XX     Training  of  high  school  teachers 61 

XXI     Percentile   distribution   of   high   school   teachers   on 

basis  of  training 61 

XXII     Distribution    of    high    school   teachers    on    basis    of 

experience 63 

XXIII-        Distribution  of  high  school  teachers,  including  prin- 

XXIV  cipals,  on  basis  of  salary 67-68 

XXV     Special  teachers  and  supervisors 70 

XXVI     Salaries  of  special  teachers 71 

XXVII     Median   salaries  of  grade,   special,   and  high  school 

teachers  in  the  different  types  of  schools ^2 

XXVIII     Courses  of  study  used  in  different  types  of  schools. . .  ^^ 

XXIX     Number  and  per  cent  of  schools  offering  the  newer 

subjects 78 

XXX     Supervision  in  the  different  types  of  schools 80 

XXXI     Nature  and  extent  of  school  and  community  activities  89 

XXXII-        Population  and  school  statistics   for  the  four  types 

XXXV  of  schools 93-96 

XXXVI-        Changes  in  population,  and  school  statistics  given  in 

XXXIX  per  cents 97-100 

XL     Central  tendencies  and  deviations  in  population  and 

school  statistics lOi 

XLI-XLIV     Property  valuation  and  tax  levies  in  the  four  types 

of   corporations 106-111 

XLV     Central    tendencies    and    deviations    in    corporation 

wealth  and  tax  levies 113 

V 


VI 


List  of  Tables 


XLVI- 
XLIX 
L 


LI-LIV 

LIVa 

LV-LVIII 

LIX-LXII 

LXIII- 

LXVI 

LXVII 

LXVIII 


LXIX- 
LXXII 
LXXIII 


LXXIV- 
LXXVII 
LXXVIII- 

LXXXI 
LXXXII- 
LXXXV 
LXXXVI 

LXXXVII- 
XC 
XCI 


XCII-XCV 
XCVI 


Wealth  per  capita  school  population  and  percentile 

distribution  of  tax  levies 114-117 

Central  tendencies  and  deviations  of  wealth  per 
capita,  and  tax  levies  on  basis  of  per  cent  of  total 
tax  levies 119 

Data  for  comparison  of  wealth  per  capita  and  tax 

levies  in  the  four  types  of  corporations 121 -122 

Quartile  ratios  of  wealth  per  capita  and  tax  levies 

in  the  four  types  of  corporations 123 

Sources  and  amounts  of  tuition  receipts 124-127 

Percentile  distribution  of  tuition  receipts 128-131 

Distribution  of  tuition  receipts  on  basis  of  number  of 

pupils  in  average  daily  attendance 134-13/ 

Central  tendencies  and  deviations  in  percentile  dis- 

tibution  of  tuition  receipts 138 

Central  tendencies  and  deviations  in  tuition  receipts 
on  basis  of  amount  received  per  pupil  in  average 
daily  attendance 141 

Data  showing  the  effect  of  distribution  of  state  funds 

on  teacher-average-daily-attendance  basis 142-145 

Comparison  of  effect  of  teacher-average-daily-attend- 
ance basis  of  distribution  on  the  four  types  of 
schools 148 

Distribution  of  school  expenditures 149-158 

Percentile  distribution  of  school  expenditures i59-i75 

Distribution   of   expenditures  on  basis   of  pupils   in 

average  daily  attendance , 176-183 

Central  tendencies  and  deviations  from  central  ten- 
dencies in  distribution  of  school  expenditures 184 

Data  for  comparison  of  total  cost  per  pupil  to  teach- 
ers' salaries,  wealth  per  capita  and  tax  levies 188-191 

Relation  of  total  cost  per  pupil  to  expenditures  for 
teachers'  salaries,  wealth  per  capita  and  tax  levies 
in  the  four  types  of  schools 192 

Distribution  of  excessive  expenditures 195-198 

Comparison   of   excessive   expenditures   in   the   four 

types  of  schools 199 


CHAPTER  I 
Introduction 

Much  is  being  written  and  more  said  concerning  the  limitations 
and  deficiencies  of  the  one- room  district  or  rural  school  of  today 
as  compared  with  the  efficiency  of  the  township  consolidated,  town, 
and  city  schools.  The  question  has  provided  subjects  for  many 
series  of  lectures,  magazine  articles,  special  reports  by  commissions 
and  quite  a  number  of  books.  All  are  agreed  that  the  rural  schools 
do  not  effectively  meet  the  needs  of  country  life  but  do  not  agree 
as  to  the  changes  that  should  be  made  in  order  that  the  desired 
results  may  be  obtained.  It  is  a  case  where  the  doctors  disagree. 
One  insists  that  the  greatest  need  is  a  more  modem  and  sanitary 
school  plant,  another  prescribes  better  trained  teachers,  a  third 
insists  that  an  enriched  course  of  study  is  the  most  imperative  need, 
while  a  large  percentage  offer  consolidation  as  a  panacea  for  exist- 
ing ills  since  all  these  other  things  will  be  assured  as  a  natural  result. 

The  attitude  of  a  very  large  group  of  writers  is  illustrated  by 
the  following: 

"The  retention  of  the  small  one-room  school  as  a  local  institu- 
tion and  as  a  land-mark  is  a  worthy  sentiment,  but  a  sentiment  much 
more  worthy  is  that  which  would  create  a  new  rural  school  conse- 
crated to  a  new  principle  in  education  and  farm  life  and  founded 
to  endure  through  another  period  of  national  greatness  until  in  a 
later  generation,  other  wise  men  shall  rebuild  the  educational  struc- 
ture again  suited  to  their  needs  and  their  conditions How- 
ever useful  and  effective  the  small  district  was  in  its  day,  it  is,  in 
most  localities,  getting  out  of  touch  with  present-day  rural  affairs 
and  with  the  rural  community."  (G.  W.  Knorr — A  Study  of  Fifteen 
Consolidated  Rural  Schools,  p.  lo.) 

In  speaking  of  the  great  advantages  of  the  consolidated  school 
over  the  one-room  rural  school  the  same  writer  in  another  bulletin 
(No.  232,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture)  expresses  himself  as  follows: 

"The  advantages  of  the  new  system  are  obvious :  The  fusion  of 
a  number  of  small  districts  into  a  larger  administrative  unit  fur- 
nishes a  stable  and  extensive  basis  for  financing  the  school  and 
thereby  make  for  higher  efficiency.  The  school,  no  longer  seriously 
affected  by  fluctuations  in  school  population,  becomes  an  institution 


v ''  ••  •*  •  ^*  •  . 

2         A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

with  fixed  location  and  belongings.  An  incentive  is  given  to  make 
permanent  improvements,  to  beautify  the  school  grounds,  secure 
modem  sanitation  and  provide  ample  schoolroom  equipment.  The 
large  number  of  children  assembled  at  a  centrally  located  school 
makes  possible  graded  classes  and  a  better  division  of  the  school 
day.  Studies  can  be  introduced  which  require  special  equipment 
and  specially  trained  teachers,  such  as  agriculture,  home  economics, 
manual  training,  music — advantages  almost  unattainable  in  small 
district  schools.  These  centrally  located  country-life  schools,  too, 
form  convenient  social  centers  for  communities;  local  interests 
and  activities  affiliated  with  the  schools,  so  that  public  use  is  fre- 
quently made  of  their  commodious  classrooms  or  auditoriums. 
Encouragement  is  given  to  the  growth  of  literary  and  debating 
societies,  social  and  agricultural  clubs,  grange  meetings,  reading 
circles,  athletic  and  other  competitives  among  pupils,  and  entertain- 
ments of  various  kinds It  was   assimilated   into  the 

rural-school  system  as  a  result  of  observation  and  careful  experi- 
ment, and  fortunately  lacked  every  element  of  a  fad.  It  gains  a 
foothold  chiefly  where  civic  ambition  and  high  educational  ideals 
establish  high  standards  and  determine  to  attain  them." 

Another  writer  (See  The  American  Rural  School  by  Foght) 
speaks  of  the  efficiency  of  urban  schools  as  follows : 

"Graded  schools,  in  cities  and  villages  alike,  have  reached  a 
stage  of  development  or  evolution  so  satisfactory  that  their  future 

is  practically  assured Secondary  and  higher  education 

within  our  country  have  attained  a  satisfactory  degree  of  excellency 
and  efficiency." 

While  such  generalizations  as  those  quoted  above  may  be  true, 
they  certainly  would  be  given  much  greater  consideration  if  based 
on  something  more  than  general  observations.  Furthermore,  there 
seemed  to  be  a  tendency,  and  it  still  prevails  to  a  certain  extent, 
to  assume  that  the  city  school  has  reached  a  high  degree  of  perfec- 
tion and  is  the  standard  by  which  the  efficiency  of  the  rural  school 
is  to  be  measured.  If  a  rural  school  imitates  the  city  school  to  a 
large  extent  in  its  organization  and  practices  it  is  considered  pro- 
gressive and  worthy  of  great  commendation. 

In  the  beginning  of  a  new  movement  it  is  always  necessary  to 
theorize  concerning  the  probable  results,  and  in  this  regard  the 
consolidated  school  is  no  exception.  This,  however,  should  not 
continue  longer  than  is  necessary  for  educational  practice  in  har- 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana         3 

mony  with  the  advanced  theories  to  have  continued  for  a  sufficiently 
long  period  to  provide  data  for  a  study  of  the  results.  The  con- 
solidated school  has  been  in  existence  long  enough  to  justify  itself 
on  this  basis.  If  an  investigation  clearly  shows  that  the  consolidated 
school,  on  account  of  its  organization  and  administration,  is  a  much 
more  efficient  institution  for  the  training  of  children  than  the  one- 
room  rural  school  and  that  the  results  of  this  better  training  are 
manifested  through  improved  economic  and  social  conditions  of  the 
community,  there  is  no  need  for  further  discussion  of  the  question ; 
it  is  a  time  for  decisive  action.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  these  results 
are  lacking  or  are  not  sufficiently  in  evidence  to  offset  the  objec- 
tions to  consolidation,  it  means  that  there  must  be  a  more  intensive 
study  of  the  situation  before  the  problems  of  rural  education  are 
solved  satisfactorily. 

With  the  development  of  the  statistical  and  survey  methods  of 
investigation  have  come  a  number  of  studies  which  bear  more  or 
less  directly  on  the  problems  of  the  rural  schools.  One  of  the  most 
recent  and  intensive  of  these  and  one  that  is  devoted  entirely  to 
rural  education  is  that  made  by  Dr.  Burnham.  (See  his  Two  Types 
of  Rural  Schools.)  In  this  he  gives  a  careful  survey  of  the  economic 
and  social  conditions  of  the  communities  in  which  the  schools  are 
located  before  attempting  an  intensive  study  of  the  schools.  His 
conclusions  indicate  that  some  of  the  generalizations  concerning 
the  merits  of  the  consolidated  schools  based  on  general  impressions 
are  not  well  founded.  This  study  is  especially  valuable  in  two 
respects,  (a)  It  presents  correlated  data  concerning  the  two  types 
of  rural  schools,  (b)  The  tables  showing  the  relative  standing  of 
the  two  communities  economically  and  socially,  fail  to  reveal  any 
pronounced  advancement  of  the  community  in  which  the  consoli- 
dated schools  are  located  over  the  communities  in  which  there  are 
only  the  one- room  rural  school.  In  order  to  obtain  perfectly 
reliable  data,  however,  concerning  the  relative  influence  of  the  two 
types  of  schools  on  the  community  life,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
secure  correlated  data  for  a  period  of  years. 

When  considering  one  type  of  schools  alone,  it  is  difficult  to 
estimate  the  true  value  of  the  different  phases  of  the  work.  In 
order  to  see  things  in  their  true  relationship  it  is  necessary  to  have 
some  basis  for  comparison.  For  example,  one  may  emphasize  the 
fact  that  a  teacher  in  a  consolidated  school  has  only  one  grade  to 
teach,  but  fail  to  observe  that  a  pupil  in  the  one-room  rural  school 


4         A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

is  given  more  individual  attention  and  has  a  greater  opportunity 
to  exercise  his  own  initiative  and  originality.  The  same  difficulty, 
in  a  little  more  complex  form,  is  present  when  the  rural  situation 
is  considered  apart  from  the  conditions  and  practices  in  the  urban 
schools.  There  is  a  tendency  to  over-emphasize  the  deficiencies  of 
the  one  and  the  excellencies  of  the  other.  While  recognizing  the  fact 
that  both  the  rural  and  urban  schools  have  problems  that  are  pecu- 
liarly their  own,  it  is  also  true  that  in  dealing  with  many  of  the 
larger  phases  of  the  work  a  comparative  study  is  profitable.  Such 
a  comparative  study  will  not  only  aid  in  seeing  the  rural  situation 
in  proper  perspective,  but  may  correct  some  of  the  misconceptions 
and  reveal  some  of  the  needs  of  the  urban  schools. 

Purpose 

The  efficiency  of  a  school  may  be  tested  in  two  ways :  either  on 
a  basis  of  results  as  seen  in  increased  attendance,  advanced  standing 
of  its  graduates  and  the  improved  social  conditions  of  the  commu- 
nity in  which  the  school  is  located,  or  on  a  basis  of  relative  efficiency 
of  the  various  parts  of  the  organization  and  thus  judge  the  efficiency 
of  the  whole  as  an  institution  for  the  right  training  of  children. 
This  study  will  approach  the  situation  from  the  latter  point  of  view, 
presenting  correlated  data  of  the  four  types  of  schools,  the  one- 
room  township  district  school,  the  township  consolidated  school, 
the  village  or  town  school,  and  the  city  school  of  Indiana.  An  effort 
will  be  made  to  present  correlated  data  that  will  reveal  the  exact 
condition  of  these  four  types  of  schools  with  reference  to  school 
plants,  teachers,  school  population,  attendance,  curricula,  super- 
vision, revenue  and  expenditures,  and  to  determine: — 

(i)     To  what  extent  do  the  facts  substantiate  the  claims 

made  by  the  advocates  for  consolidation. 

(2)  Which  of  the  advantages  gained  by  consolidation  are 
limited  to  this  type  of  organization. 

(3)  To  what  extent  is  the  present  plan  of  organization  and 
administration  of  consolidated  schools  applicable  to  the  rural 
situation. 

(4)  The  essentials  in  the  reorganization  and  administration 
of  all  rural  and  town  schools  to  insure  equality  of  opportunity 
for  all  children  of  school  age. 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana         5 

Selection  and  Distribution  of  School  Corporations 
Great  care  was  taken  to  insure  a  random  selection  of  the  school 
corporations  considered  and  to  include  only  such  schools  as  would 
clearly  fall  within  the  limitations  of  the  four  types  indicated  above. 
School  corporations  from  twenty-five  of  the  ninety- two  counties 
of  Indiana  were  selected  as  follows:  It  was  first  determined  in 
what  counties  of  the  state  were  located  consolidated  schools  that 
provided  educational  facilities  for  all  of  the  children  of  the  town- 
ship (the  township  being  the  unit  of  taxation  and  administration), 
and  were  not  united  with  the  schools  of  a  village  or  town.  From 
such  counties  data  were  obtained  for  one  township  in  which  were 
only  one-room  rural  schools,  the  township  or  townships  in  which 
there  was  complete  consolidation  in  one  or  two  buildings,  the  one 
town  whose  population  was  nearest  one  thousand,  and  a  city,  pro- 
vided its  population  was  greater  than  twenty-five  hundred  and  did 
not  exceed  twenty  thousand,  if  there  were  any  such  town  and  city 
within  the  county.  The  township  selected  was  the  first  in  each 
county,  taken  alphabetically,  that  met  the  required  conditions, 
namely,  that  had  only  one-room  district  schools  and  had  no  town 
or  city  within  its  limits.  (Two  exceptions  were  discovered  after 
the  data  were  collected  and  work  well  under  way.  Such  cases  were 
omitted  if  exceptional  in  any  respect.)  In  some  cases  where  there 
were  only  a  few  schools  in  this  township,  a  second  was  taken,  in 
which  case  the  last  township  on  the  list  that  met  the  requirements 
was  selected.  Since  there  were  so  few  townships  within  the  state 
in  which  the  consolidated  schools  met  the  above  conditions,  it  was 
found  advisable  to  include  the  two  townships  that  met  the  require- 
ments in  two  counties  and  the  three  in  the  third.  In  all  other  cases 
not  more  than  one  township  with  consolidated  schools  is  taken  from 
any  county.  It  sometimes  happened  that  the  records  on  file  in  the 
county  offices  were  incomplete  so  that  it  was  not  possible  to  get  the 
desired  data  for  the  towns  and  cities.  In  such  cases  the  writer 
selected  the  nearest  town  or  city  in  an  adjoining  county.  The  dis- 
tribution of  the  counties  in  which  are  located  the  consolidated 
schools  is  quite  wide,  extending  to  almost  every  part  of  the  state 
except  the  extreme  northeastern  and  southern  parts,  though  a 
greater  number  are  to  be  found  in  the  middle  half  than  in  the 
northern  and  southern  fourths  combined.  In  addition  to  the  coun- 
ties which  had  one  or  more  townships  with  consolidated  schools, 
a  number  of  other  counties  were  selected,  so  that  the  total  number 


6         A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

of  counties  included  in  the  study  are  as  nearly  equally  distributed 
throughout  the  state  as  it  is  possible  to  select  them.  Only  in  cases 
of  counties  with  consolidated  schools  do  any  two  selected  have  a 
common  boundary  line. 

Original  Data 

The  first  effort  to  secure  the  data  for  this  study  was  made  during 
the  summer  of  191 1  while  the  writer  was  teaching  in  the  Summer 
School  of  Indiana  University.  A  blank,  somewhat  simpler  in  form 
than  the  one  given  below,  was  given  at  the  close  of  the  term,  to 
members  of  classes  in  Secondary  Education  and  sent  to  friends  and 
fellow  students  who  were  located  in  the  different  counties  through- 
out the  state.  The  returns  received  varied  so  greatly  and  some  were 
so  incomplete  that  it  was  thought  best  to  discard  all  except  the 
returns  from  three  counties.  This  experience  was  sufficient  to  show 
that  any  form  of  a  questionnaire  method  would  be  inadequate  for 
an  investigation  of  this  kind.  The  summer  of  191 2  and  some  time 
during  the  summer  of  19 13  was  spent  by  the  writer  visiting  cities, 
county  seats,  towns,  and  a  few  townships  in  the  different  counties, 
securing  the  material  on  which  this  investigation  is  based.  The 
forms  given  below  served  as  a  guide  in  this  work. 

The  information  concerning  buildings,  equipment,  sanitation, 
etc.,  was  secured,  for  the  cities,  by  personal  observation  and  con- 
ferences with  city  superintendents;  for  towns  and  consolidated 
schools,  by  personal  observation  and  conferences  with  the  principals 
of  the  schools  and  county  superintendents,  and  in  a  number  of  cases 
by  correspondence  as  it  frequently  happened  that  the  principals  of 
these  schools  did  not  reside  in  the  town  or  were  away  during  the 
summer  vacation ;  for  townships,  by  personal  observation  in  a  few 
cases  but  usually  by  conference  with  the  county  superintendent  and 
by  some  correspondence  with  some  teacher  in  the  township. 

The  information  concerning  teachers  and  supervision  was  se- 
cured from  records  in  the  offices  of  the  county  superintendent  and 
by  interviewing  city,  town  and  county  superintendents.  Where  it 
was  impossible  to  meet  the  superintendent  personally  the  desired 
information  was  obtained  through  correspondence. 

Records  in  the  offices  of  the  state  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, county  auditors,  and  county  superintendents  supplied  the 
statistical  and  financial  data.  A  complete  transcript  of  the  expendi- 
tures in  each  corporation  was  made  and  classified  by  the  writer  with 
the  aid  of  one  assistant,  so  that  uniformity  prevails  throughout. 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana         y 

BUILDINGS,  EQUIPMENT  AND  SANITATION 

1.  Number  of  buildings  in  use? Rooms  in  use? 

2.  Number  of  rooms  heated  by  means  of — 

a.     Stoves? b.     Stoves  with  jackets  or  screens? 

c.    Furnace? d.      Steam? e.     Hot  water? 

f.     Direct  -  indirect  system? 

3.  Number  of  rooms  ventilated  by  means  of — 

a.     Doors  and  windows  only? b.    Some  form  of  gravity 

system? c.    Fan  or  force  system? 

4.  Number  of  rooms  lighted  by  windows  on — 

a.     One  side  only? b.    Two  adjacent  sides? 

c.  Two  opposite  sides? d.     Three  sides? 

5.  Number  of  rooms  furnished  with — 

a.    Single  non-adjustable  desks? b.    Single  adjustable 

desks? c.       Double  non-adjustable  desks? 

d.  Double  adjustable  desks? 

6.  Number  of  buildings  at  which  water  is  provided  by  means  of — 

a.    Pail  and  common  drinking  cup? b.    Pail  and  individual 

drinking  cups? c.     Pump   or   faucet   and   common 

cup? d.     Pump  or  faucet  and  individual  cups? 

e.  Drinking  fountains? 

7.  Decorations. 

a.  How  often  are  the  walls  redecorated? 

b.  What  per  cent  of  the  rooms  are  provided  with  pictures? 

At  public  expense? Through  efforts  of  teachers  and 

pupils? 

8.  Sanitation. 

a.  How  often  is  the  furniture  and  woodwork  washed? 

b.  How  often  are  all  marks,  carvings,  etc.,   removed  and  furniture 
revamished? c.   How  often  are  the  rooms  disinfected? 

d.  Are  floors  kept  clean  by  means  of  a  broom? Oil  and 

brush? Mop? Vacuum  cleaning  system? 

e.  Are  toilets  inside  or  outside  of  school  building? Sanitary 

or  unsanitary? Are  they  free  from  marks,  carvings,  etc.? 

9.  Libraries. 

a.  Have  you  a  public  library  maintained  at  public  expense? 

b.  Have  you  a  library  in  school? Maintained  at  public 

expense? Through  efforts  of  teacher  and  pupils? 

c.  In  what  subjects  have  you  supplementary  books? 


TEACHERS 
Number  of — 

Men  teaching  in                   Women  teaching  in  Total  in 

Grades Grades Grades  

High  School High  School High  School 

Special Special Special 


8         A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

GRADE   TEACHERS 
Number  of  years  (or  weeks) 
■»j  Teaches       in  Present      Normal        College      Experi-   Daily     Class  A, 

JName  ^jj^^^  Position       Training     Training       ence       salary     B  or  C 


I. 
2. 
3- 

4- 

k 

7- 
8. 

9- 

lO. 

II. 

12. 

13- 

14.. 
15- 


HIGH    SCHOOL   TEACHERS 


SPECIAL  TEACHERS 


ADMINISTRATORS  AND  SUPERVISORS    (nOT  INCLUDED  ABOVE) 


I 

2 

3 

4 

I 

2 

3 

4 ^ 

SUPERVISION 

Average  number  of  visits  made  by  the   superintendent  to   each   room 
during  the  year? Average  length  of  each  visit? 

State,  in  order  of  importance,  the  purpose  of  such  visitation. 

a b 

c d 

e 

Number  of  institutes  held,  in  the  corporation  during  the  year? 

Teachers'  meetings? Average  length  of  each? Per  cent  of 

the  time  devoted  to  (a)  routine  work  of  school? (b)  larger 

problems  of  education  ? Any  other  means  of  professional  improve- 
ment of  teachers  and  if  so,  what  was  nature  of  same? 

Do  you   have  medical   inspection   other  than   city  or  county   Board  of 

Health? How  often? Dental  inspection? 

How  often? 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 


STUDENT   AND   COMMUNITY   ACTIVITIES 


a — What  student  organization  or  activities  in  school?  b — Number  of 
meetings  of  each  during  the  year?  c — Per  cent  of  students  taking  part  in 
each? 

a  be 


Number  of  patrons'  meetings  held  during  the  year? What 

social  center  activities  carried  on  by  the  school  and  how  often? 


COURSE  OF   STUDY 

Do  you  use  the  "State  Course  of  Study"  in  the  grades? In  the 

high  school? If  not,  by  whom  formulated? 

In  what  respects  does  it  differ  from  the  "State  Course  of  Study"? 

Please  indicate  what  work  is  done  in  the  following  subjects: — 

Tr.  wTiat  HraHpQ?  ^O-   °^  Lessons        Average  Length 

In  what  Grades?  ^^^  ^^^j^,  ^^  Periods? 


a. 

Music 

b. 

Drawing 

c. 

Nature-study 

d. 

Agriculture 

e. 

Manual  training 

f. 

Domestic  Science 

g- 

Domestic  Art 

h. 

Physical  culture 

i. 

School  gardens 

Have  you  a  kindergarten  in  your  school? If  so,  is  it  a  part 

of  public  school  system  or  maintained  by  philanthropic  effort? 

In  what  subjects  do  you  have*  special  supervisors? 


Definition  of  Terms 
Since  there  may  be  some  doubt  as  to  what  is  meant  by  the  differ- 
ent types  of  schools  mentioned,  it  may  be  well  to  give  the  chief 
characteristics  of  each  at  this  time.  The  term  "city  school"  is  used 
in  this  study  to  indicate  the  school  in  centers  of  population  varying 
from  twenty-five  hundred  to  twenty  thousand.  The  term  "town" 
in  Indiana  has  the  same  meaning  as  the  term  "village"  in  many 
other  sections  of  the  country.     While  the  civic  organization  of  a 


lO       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

town  is  more  simple  than  that  of  the  city,  the  school  organization 
is  practically  the  same  in  towns  where  an  independent  school  as 
well  as  civic  corporation  is  maintained,  except  that  the  head  of  the 
school  is  sometimes  called  a  principal  and  devotes  the  larger  part, 
if  not  his  entire  time,  to  teaching.  The  towns  included  in  this  in- 
vestigation vary  in  population  from  five  to  fifteen  hundred  people 
and  are  limited  to  towns  with  independent  school  corporations,  that 
is,  not  combined  in  any  way  with  the  organization  of  the  township 
in  which  the  town  is  located. 

The  unit  of  administration  in  rural  affairs  is  the  township  or 
what  is  called  "town"  in  some  states  such  as  Massachusetts  and 
Wisconsin.  The  size  of  the  township  varies  greatly,  but  the  average 
area  will  be  a  little  larger  than  the  congressional  township  but  the 
boundary  lines  by  no  means  coincide  with  the  boundary  lines  of  the 
congressional  township.  The  term  "township  consolidated  school" 
is  used  to  indicate  the  one  centrally  located  school ;  sometimes  there 
are  more  than  one  in  a  township,  to  which  all  the  children  of  the 
township  are  transported,  thus  abandoning  the  one-room  schools  of 
that  township.  Only  townships  with  complete  consolidation  are 
included  in  this  study,  since  it  would  complicate  matters  very  ma- 
terially to  include  townships  which  have  one  or  more  one-room 
schools  in  addition  to  a  consolidated  school,  since  the  township  is 
the  basis  for  statistical  and  financial  reports  and  no  distinction  is 
made  between  the  two  types. 

.     The  Organization  and  Administrative  System 

The  schools  of  Indiana  are  more  centralized  than  in  many  states. 
The  head  of  the  system  is  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion who  is  elected  by  popular  vote  and  holds  office  for  two  years. 
The  state  superintendent  and  the  state  board  of  education,  composed 
of  the  governor  of  the  state,  the  state  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, the  president  of  the  state  university,  the  president  of 
Purdue  University,  the  president  of  the  state  normal  school,  the 
superintendents  of  the  three  largest  city  schools  in  the  state  and 
three  citizens  prominent  in  educational  affairs,  one  of  whom  shall 
be  a  county  superintendent,  exercise  control  over  the  schools  of 
the  state. 

While  the  state  superintendent  has  jurisdiction  over  all  the 
schools  of  the  state  it  has  been  the  practice  of  many  superintendents 
to  give  much  greater  attention  to  rural  school  problems  and  thus 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana        1 1 

leave  the  city  school  problems  to  be  worked  out  by  the  city  school 
superintendent  in  his  own  way.  Exceptions  to  this  general  state- 
ment occur  when  the  state  superintendent  is  emphasizing  industrial 
education,  sanitation,  medical  inspection,  and  other  movements  that 
affect  both  rural  and  urban  schools.  The  problems  the  state  super- 
intendent wishes  to  be  considered  by  teachers  and  school  officials 
are  brought  to  their  attention  by  means  of  bulletins,  reports,  insti- 
tute outlines,  and  through  city  and  county  superintendents. 

The  county  superintendent  has  supervision  over  all  the  schools 
of  his  county  except  those  located  in  cities  and  towns  which  main- 
tain independent  school  corporations.  The  duties  of  the  county 
superintendent  specified  by  law  are  somewhat  limited,  consisting 
of  holding  examinations,  granting  county  certificates,  visiting  all 
the  schools  of  the  county  under  his  supervision  at  least  once  each 
year,  making  out  a  success  grade  for  each  teacher,  conducting  county 
and  township  institutes,  making  reports  to  the  county  board  of 
commissioners  and  the  state  superintendent  concerning  educational 
matters  in  his  county.  The  influence  of  the  county  superintendents 
varies  greatly.  Some  are  little  more  than  clerks  attending  to  the 
routine  work  of  the  office,  while  others,  through  their  leadership 
and  authority  by  virtue  of  their  office,  exercise  much  greater  control 
and  do  much  constructive  work.         , 

The  city  school  is  administered  by  a  board  of  school  trustees 
composed  of  three  members  appointed  by  the  city  council.  This 
board  employs  the  superintendent,  principals  and  teachers,  levies 
taxes,  purchases  supplies,  determines  when  school  shall  open  and 
the  length  of  the  school  year,  may  uphold  or  rescind  the  action  of 
the  superintendent  in  the  administration  of  the  schools,  etc.  In 
many  cities  the  superintendent  is  given  great  freedom  in  many  of 
these  matters  as  well  as  in  determining  the  internal  workings  of  the 
school.  The  tendency  of  the  board  in  a  few  of  the  larger  cities  is 
to  consider  the  superintendent  an  expert  and  competent  to  direct  the 
work  of  the  school  in  all  its  details  and  merely  concern  itself  with 
the  larger  problems  referred  to  them  by  the  superintendent  and 
with  financial  affairs.  Unfortunately  this  attitude  is  not  general. 
The  smaller  the  city  the  more  jealous  the  school  board  is  of  its 
prerogatives. 

The  administration  of  the  town  school  is  very  similar  to  that 
of  the  city  except  that  it  is  more  simple  and  that  the  head  of  the 
school  is  little  more  than  a  regular  teacher.    He  usually  has  nothing 


12       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

to  say  in  school  affairs  except  in  mere  routine  matters  such  as 
making  out  the  schedule,  attending  to  problems  of  discipline,  etc. 

The  rural  township  schools,  whether  consolidated  or  one-room, 
are  under  the  administration  of  the  township  trustee  who  has  the 
three-fold  duty  of  administration  of  schools,  caring  for  the  poor 
and  looking  after  all  public  highways  except  macadam  roads  which 
are  under  the  supervision  of  the  county  commissioners.  School 
affairs  require  the  greater  portion  of  the  time  that  is  devoted  to  his 
official  duties.  He  is  responsible  for  the  building  of  new  school 
houses,  keeping  old  buildings  in  repair,  purchasing  equipment  and 
supplies,  employing  teachers,  levying  taxes,  etc.  The  number  of 
schools  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  township  trustee  varies  from 
one  consolidated  school  with  four  teachers  or  three  or  four  one- 
room  schools  to  a  number  of  consolidated  schools  with  commis- 
sioned high  schools  or  a  great  number  of  one-room  schools.  In 
some  cases  a  trustee  employs  as  many  as  four  superintendents  or 
principals  of  consolidated  schools  and  thirty  or  more  teachers.  It 
should  be  added  that  the  law  provides  for  the  election  of  a  school 
director  by  the  voters  of  a  school  district,  who  shall  look  after  the 
repairing  of  the  building,  provide  fuel,  visit  schools,  suspend  or 
expel  incorrigible  pupils,  etc.  If  the  voters  of  the  district  fail  to 
elect  such  a  school  director  at  the  time  specified  the  trustee  is  to 
appoint  some  one  in  the  district  to  fill  this  office.  In  actual  practice, 
however,  few  such  directors  are  to  be  found  in  the  state,  as  the 
township  trustee  prefers  to  attend  to  all  these  matters  himself.  It 
gives  him  a  certain  prestige  and  an  opportunity  to  increase  his 
salary,  but  it  may  also  mean  economy  to  the  township  and  a  more 
equal  distribution  of  funds  for  repairs  and  supplies. 

Briefly  summarized,  Indiana  has  a  state  system  of  schools  under 
the  direction  of  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  and 
state  board  of  education.  The  smaller  units  of  administration  under 
the  state  organization  in  certain  respects,  are  the  city,  town,  and 
the  county.  The  schools  of  cities  and  towns  are  administered  by 
boards  of  school  trustees  and  superintendents  elected  by  them.  The 
rural  schools  of  the  county  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  county 
superintendent;  the  county,  in  turn,  is  divided  into  smaller  units 
called  townships  for  administrative  purposes.  At  the  head  of  each 
township  is  the  township  trustee.  All  financial  and  statistical  re- 
ports of  townships,  towns,  and  cities  are  filed  with  the  county  super- 
intendent who  in  turn  compiles  a  report  for  the  entire  county  which 
is  forwarded  to  the  state  department. 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana        13 

Statistical  Methods  Employed 

In  making  tabulations  and  computations,  an  effort  has  been  made 
to  use  methods  that  are  fair  to  all  types  of  schools  considered  and 
to  avoid  technicalities  as  far  as  possible.  In  all  tables  that  follow, 
except  the  first,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  original  data  are  given, 
followed  by  tables  derived  from  the  same  that  will  give  an  adequate 
basis  for  comparison. 

The  average  and  median  are  used  to  indicate  the  central  tenden- 
cies and  the  average  deviation  and  quartile  to  express  variabilities. 
The  median,  M,  is  a  measure  above  and  below  which  exactly  fifty 
per  cent  of  the  cases  lie.  In  data  with  fairly  normal  distribution  in 
which  we  wish  to  retain  the  influence  of  all  cases  and  to  give  due 
consideration  to  variations  in  the  size  of  cases  included,  the  average 
is  a  better  index  of  the  true  character  of  each  measure  and  was 
about  as  readily  determined  as  the  median,  since  computations  were 
made  by  use  of  machines,  mathematical  tables,  and  slide  rule 
wherever  possible.  The  mean  or  average  deviation,  A  D,  is  the 
sum  of  the  deviations  of  the  individual  measures  from  the  central 
tendency  divided  by  the  number  of  cases.  The  quartile,  Q,  was 
used  more  extensively  than  the  average  deviation.  This  is  found 
by  counting  in  from  the  lower  end  of  the  distribution  twenty-five 
per  cent  of  the  cases  and  counting  in  from  the  higher  end  of  the  dis- 
tribution twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  cases.  The  two  points  found 
mark  the  limits  of  the  middle  fifty  per  cent,  which  is  always  a  fairer 
index  of  characteristic  groups  than  the  total  range  of  cases.  Sub- 
tracting the  lower  from  the  higher  value  found  and  dividing  the 
difference  by  two  gives  the  quartile  or  variability  in  terms  of  unit 
of  measure.  Any  individual  case  will  probably  fall  within  the  limits 
of  this  variability  when  applied  both  above  and  below  the  median 
or  average.  Any  reader  wishing  more  detailed  information  con- 
cerning the  statistical  methods  is  referred  to  Thorndike's  Mental 
and  Social  Measurements,  or  to  Rusk's  Experimental  Education. 


CHAPTER  II 

School  Plants 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  find  a  basis  for  comparison  of  school 
plants  that  will  not  give  a  wrong  impression  of  one  or  more  of  the 
types  considered.  The  most  common  basis  used  has  been  the  valua- 
tion of  school  property.  In  some  cases  attempts  have  been  made  to 
give  valuation  statistics  meaning  by  showing  the  amount  of  money 
per  capita  school  population  is  invested  in  school  property.  It  is 
needless  to  say  that  these  valuation  statistics  as  given  in  most 
reports  are  of  little  value  since  the  estimates  are  made  by  a  great 
number  of  individuals  with  different  attitudes  and  ideals  of  values, 
and  with  no  common  basis  for  judgment.  Neither  is  there  much, 
if  any,  relationship  between  the  amount  of  money  invested  and 
ability  of  the  corporation  to  pay ;  nor  does  it  necessarily  follow  that 
a  large  expenditure  means  better  accommodations  and  more  modem 
conveniences.  A  very  striking  illustration  of  the  last  fact  mentioned 
was  observed  in  one  of  the  towns  of  the  state  in  which  the  school 
board,  or  rather  one  of  the  members  who  dominated  the  board, 
erected  an  expensive  building  according  to  his  own  architectural 
ideas  and  pecuniary  inclinations.  Some  objections  were  made  by 
members  of  the  community  which  reached  the  state  board  of  health. 
The  result  was,  the  building  was  condemned  and  had  to  be  recon- 
structed before  it  could  be  used  for  school  purposes. 

From  an  educational  point  of  view  it  is  worth  a  great  deal  more 
to  make  a  comparison  on  the  basis  of  conformity  to  scientific 
principles  of  hygiene  and  sanitation  than  on  the  basis  of  valuation. 
The  data  hereafter  presented  were  collected  with  this  idea  in  mind. 
Most  of  the  items  call  for  information  that  could  be  given  by  anyone 
familiar  with  the  situation  with  little  variation  on  account  of  indi- 
vidual standards  or  bias,  hence  are  fairly  reliable.  One  or  two 
items  permit  of  some  variation  but  are  included  to  show  tendencies 
rather  than  to  give  accurate  information  on  the  subject  involved. 
The  per  cent  basis  has  been  used  in  all  the  tabulations  so  that 
comparisons  may  be  made  with  little  difficulty.  The  sum  of  all  the 
items  under  each  general  heading  such  as  "heating",  etc.,  for  each 
corporation  or  type  of  school  equals  one  hundred  per  cent  except 
under  sanitation  in  which  case  there  is  an  over-lapping  since  a 
number  of  schools  reported  two  or  more  methods  used  in  cleaning 
floors.  After  the  complete  tabulations  of  the  data  for  the  four 
types  of  schools  studied  will  be  found  a  table  showing  the  summary 
and  relative  standings  of  the  township  district,  township  consoli- 
dated, town,  and  city  schools. 


M 

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[26] 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       2^ 

The  foregoing  summary  is  almost  self-explanatory.  It  reveals  at 
once  that  the  predominating  type  of  school  buildings  for  township 
district  schools  is  the  small  rectangular  structure  with  the  entrance 
at  one  end,  lighted  on  opposite  sides  and  heated  by  a  common  wood 
or  coal  stove  located  in  the  center  of  the  room.  It  is  needless  to 
say  that  in  such  buildings  there  are  no  ventilating  systems ;  and  it 
may  be  added  that  none  are  needed  in  many  of  them  since  the 
openings  about  the  doors  and  windows  and  the  holes  in  the  ceilings 
provide  adequate  circulation  of  air.  The  heating  problem  is  a  more 
vital  one  in  cold  weather.  Another  type  of  one-room  buildings  for 
rural  schools  is  a  slight  modification  of  the  type  described  above. 
Instead  of  the  entrance  being  at  the  end  and  directly  into  the  school- 
room, it  is  at  one  side  which  makes  it  necessary  for  the  pupils  to 
pass  through  a  small  cloakroom  before  entering  the  schoolroom 
proper.  These  buildings  are  usually  lighted  on  three  sides  but  in 
all  other  respects  they  are  very  similar  to  the  small  rectangular 
buildings. 

A  few  of  the  newer  buildings,  however,  reveal  the  fact  that  this 
old  type  of  architecture  is  passing  away  and  that  an  effort  is  being 
made  in  some  localities  to  construct  buildings  on  a  more  scientific 
plan.  Two  buildings  in  one  township  were  constructed  on  plans 
approved  by  the  secretary  of  the  state  board  of  health.  The  build- 
ings were  provided  with  basements  in  which  were  a  furnace  room, 
a  fuel  room,  and  a  play  room.  These  buildings  were  lighted  on  one 
side  only.  The  cloakrooms  were  lighted  and  heated  also.  The 
furnace  took  the  air  from  the  outside  of  the  building  so  that  there 
was  good  ventilation.  In  all  respects  they  were  quite  modern.  Such 
buildings  show  that  it  is  possible  to  construct  one-room  buildings 
on  hygienic  and  sanitary  principles  as  well;as  the  larger  consolidated 
school  buildings. 

Since  the  movement  for  consolidated  schools  is  comparatively 
recent,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  buildings  will  be  more  modem 
than  found  in  the  township  district  schools.  In  fact  the  difference 
is  so  great  that  there  is  little  basis  for  comparison  in  methods  of 
heating  and  ventilating.  By  referring  to  Table  v  it  will  be  observed 
that  the  buildings  for  consolidated  schools  more  nearly  conform  to 
the  established  standards  for  heating,  lighting,  and  ventilating  than 
do  the  city  school  buildings  and  are  decidedly  superior  to  those  found 
in  the  towns.  The  consolidated  schools  are  provided  with  twice  as 
many  adjustable  seats  as  the  city  schools  and  nearly  three  times  as 


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[28] 


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HUHU 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       31 

many  as  the  town  schools,  while  very  few  adjustable  seats  are  to 
be  found  in  the  township  district  schools.  No  double  seats  are  to 
be  found  in  the  consolidated  schools  while  a  few  are  to  be  found 
in  city  schools,  usually  in  some  remote  one-room  building.  Seven 
per  cent  in  town  schools  and  about  twenty-nine  per  cent  in  the 
township  district  schools  are  equipped  with  desks  of  this  type.  The 
table  shows  that  about  twenty  per  cent  of  the  township  district 
schools  are  provided  with  sanitary  drinking  facilities  as  compared 
with  seventy  per  cent  of  the  consolidated  schools,  seventy-eight 
per  cent  of  the  town  schools  and  eighty-one  per  cent  of  the  city 
schools. 

The  data  concerning  decorations  are  not  so  reliable  as  that  which 
we  have  been  considering  but  indicate  that  little  or  no  attention  is 
given  to  the  walls  in  sixty-seven  per  cent  of  the  township  district 
schools  and  fifty-two  per  cent  of  the  town  schools  as  compared  with 
forty-one  per  cent  of  the  township  consolidated  schools  and  twenty 
per  cent  of  the  city  schools.  Very  few  pictures  are  to  be  found  in 
the  township  district  schools  and  it  is  only  in  the  city  schools  that 
the  matter  is  considered  of  sufficient  importance  to  lead  the  school 
officials  to  appropriate  public  funds  for  the  purchase  of  pictures. 
Practically  the  entire  expense  for  pictures  in  town,  consolidated, 
and  township  district  schools  is  met  by  the  efforts  of  the  teachers 
and  pupils.  All  except  about  ten  per  cent  of  the  township  district 
schools  are  provided  with  school  libraries.  The  most  that  can  be 
said  from  the  data  at  hand  is  that  some  attention  is  being  given  to 
reading  outside  of  textbooks.  It  may  be  safely  added  from  general 
observation  that  the  libraries  in  all  except  the  larger  city  schools 
consist,  for  the  most  part,  of  books  selected  from  the  Young  Peo- 
ple's Reading  Circle  and  a  few  reference  books  in  the  high  school 
subjects.  In  the  matter  of  public  support  of  libraries  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  town  schools  rank  lowest  with  twenty-two  per 
cent  of  the  cost  of  maintenance  being  borne  by  the  public  as  com- 
pared with  thirty-one  per  cent  in  the  township  district  schools, 
forty-three  per  cent  in  the  consolidated  schools,  and  sixty-nine  per 
cent  in  the  city  schools.  Few  supplementary  books  are  to  be  found 
in  the  one-room  rural  schools,  while  the  consolidated  and  town 
schools  rank  about  the  same  in  this  regard  and  the  city  schools  are 
fairly  well  supplied.  Reading  is  the  one  subject  for  which  supple- 
mentary books  are  most  frequently  reported.  History  ranks  second 
and  geography  third. 


32       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

The  data  concerning  sanitation  reveals  nothing  new  in  regard 
to  the  township  district  schools  but  show  that  there  is  room  for 
decided  improvement  along  some  lines  in  both  the  town  and  city 
schools.  The  township  district  buildings  are  usually  cleaned  just 
before  the  opening  of  school  at  which  time  the  floors  are  scrubbed 
and  the  woodwork  washed,  but  little  or  no  effort  is  made  to  remove 
the  marks,  carvings,  etc.,  from  the  desks.  This  one  cleaning  ends 
the  efforts  for  the  year  unless  there  is  an  epidemic  in  the  school  in 
which  case  the  building  is  thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected. 
Some  of  the  floors  are  oiled  at  the  beginning  of  the  school  year  and 
some  form  of  "dustdown"  and  brush  is  used  in  ten  per  cent  of  the 
buildings,  while  the  broom  continues  to  hold  sway  in  all  other  build- 
ings. Only  thirteen  per  cent  of  the  toilets  are  reported  as  sanitary 
and  sixteen  per  cent  free  from  marks  and  carvings.  Much  more 
consideration  is  given  sanitation  in  the  consolidated  schools  than  in 
the  rural  schools  just  considered.  Thirty-five  per  cent  of  the  con- 
solidated school  buildings  are  cleaned  more  frequently  than  once 
each  year;  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  desks  are  kept  free  from  all 
marks  and  carving  and  an  effort  is  made  in  sixty- three  per  cent  of 
the  buildings  to  clean  the  floors  by  some  method  that  will  eliminate 
the  dust.  Fifty-three  per  cent  of  the  toilets  of  the  consolidated 
schools  are  located  within  the  buildings,  which  indicates  that  these 
buildings  have  water  systems  of  their  own  which  provide  water 
for  all  school  purposes.  Usually  these  buildings  are  equipped  with 
gasoline  engines  which  are  used  to  run  the  ventilating  systems  dur- 
ing the  regular  school  hours  and  to  pump  water  into  pressure  tanks 
at  other  times  when  needed.  This  is  an  excellent  showing  when 
compared  with  what  we  find  in  the  town  schools  where  only  forty 
per  cent  of  toilets  are  located  within  the  school  buildings.  Sixty- 
five  per  cent  are  reported  as  sanitary  in  the  consolidated  schools  as 
compared  with  forty  per  cent  in  the  town  schools.  Fifty-nine  per 
cent  are  free  from  all  marks  and  carvings  as  compared  with  fifty- 
two  per  cent  in  the  town  schools  and  forty-nine  per  cent  in  the  city 
schools. 

Recent  Legislation 

Prior  to  191 1  there  was  little  direct  legislation  concerning  the 
sanitation  of  school  buildings  though  some  control  was  exercised 
by  the  state  and  county  boards  of  health.  The  assembly  of  191 1- 
1912  passed  a  number  of  laws  requiring  all  buildings  erected  or 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       33 

remodeled  to  be  constructed  according  to  certain  hygienic  and  sani- 
tary specifications.  A  digest  of  these  laws  is  given  after  which  an 
eifort  will  be  made  to  show  how  these  laws  will  affect  the  different 
types  of  schools  we  have  been  considering. 

Sites.  The  sites  shall  be  dry  and  well  drained ;  not  nearer  than 
500  feet  to  a  railroad,  livery,  or  other  stable  used  for  breeding  pur- 
poses, or  "any  noise-making  industry,  or  any  unhealthful  condition". 
Dry  walks  from  street  or  road  to  school  building  and  to  all  out- 
buildings and  suitable  playgrounds  must  be  provided. 

Buildings.  If  it  is  a  brick  building  it  shall  have  a  foundation  of 
stone  or  a  layer  of  non-absorbing  material  above  the  ground  line. 
Every  two-story  school  building  shall  have  a  well-lighted  basement 
with  concrete  floor  and  a  ceiling  not  less  than  ten  feet  high,  under 
the  entire  building.  The  ground  floor  must  be  at  least  three  feet 
above  the  ground  level  and  the  area  between  the  ground  and  floor 
well  ventilated.  Each  pupil  shall  be  provided  with  not  less  than  275 
cubic  feet  of  space  and  the  interior  walls  painted  or  tinted  some 
natural  color  as  gray,  slate,  buff,  or  green. 

Lighting.  All  schoolrooms  used  for  study  shall  be  lighted  on 
one  side  only  and  the  glass  area  shall  not  be  less  than  one-sixth  of 
floor  area  and  the  windows  shall  extend  from  not  less  than  four 
feet  from  the  floor  to  at  least  one  foot  from  the  ceiling.  All  win- 
dows shall  be  provided  with  adjustable  shades  of  natural  color. 

Seating.  Adjustable  seats  and  desks  are  •  recommended  and 
twenty  per  cent  in  each  room  required  to  be  adjustable.  They  shall 
be  so  arranged  that  the  light  will  fall  over  the  left  shoulder  of 
right-handed  pupils  and  over  the  right  shoulder  of  left-handed 
pupils. 

Blackboards.  Blackboards  shall  be  preferably  of  slate,  but  of 
whatever  material,  the  color  shall  be  a  dead  black. 

Cloakrooms.  Well-lighted,  warmed  and  ventilated  cloakrooms, 
or  sanitary  lockers,  shall  be  provided  for  each  study  schoolroom. 

Water  Supply.  All  school  houses  shall  be  provided  with  pure 
drinking  water  which  shall  be  supplied  from  driven  wells  or  other 
source,  approved  by  the  health  authorities.  Only  smooth  stout  glass 
or  enameled  metal  cups  shall  be  used.  All  pumps  shall  be  supplied 
with  drains  to  take  away  the  waste  water.  No  pools  shall  be  allowed 
about  the  well.  Water  buckets  and  tin  drinking  cups  are  unlawful 
and  forbidden.  Drinking  fountains  are  recommended  and  required 
if  practicable.     "When  water  is  not  supplied  at  pumps  or  water 


34       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

faucets  or  sanitary  drinking  fountains,  then  covered  tanks  or  coolers 
supplied  with  spring  or  self-closing  faucet  shall  be  provided." 
(A  later  law  prohibits  the  use  of  common  drinking  cups.) 

Heating  and  Ventilating.  Ventilating  heating  stoves,  furnaces 
and  heaters  of  all  kinds  shall  be  capable  of  maintaining  a  tempera- 
ture of  70  degrees  Fahrenheit  in  zero  weather  and  of  maintaining 
a  relative  humidity  of  at  least  forty  per  cent.  All  heaters  shall  take 
air  from  outside  the  building  and  after  heating,  introduce  it  into 
the  schoolroom  at  a  point  not  less  than  five  feet  nor  more  than  seven 
feet  from  the  floor  and  at  a  minimum  rate  of  thirty  cubic  feet  per 
minute  for  each  pupil,  regardless  of  outside  conditions.  (An  ex- 
ception is  made  for  the  direct-indirect  system  of  heating.)  All  halls, 
cloakrooms,  laboratories,  etc.,  must  be  heated.  Direct  steam  heat- 
ing is  forbidden.  All  rooms  must  be  provided  with  ventilating  ducts 
of  ample  size  to  withdraw  the  air  at  least  four  times  every,  hour 
and  said  ducts  must  be  on  the  same  side  of  the  room  with  the  hot 
air  ducts. 

Toilets.  Water-closets  or  dry  closets  when  provided  shall  be 
efficient  and  sanitary  in  every  respect,  detailed  specification  being 
given.  Good  dry  walks  shall  lead  to  all  outhouses.  Screen  or 
shields  must  be  provided. 

Cleaning  and  Disinfecting.  All  school  houses  shall  be  well 
cleaned  and  disinfected  each  year  before  they  are  used  for  school 
purposes.  The  cleaning  shall  consist  in  first  sweeping,  then  scrub- 
bing the  floors,  washing  the  windows  and  wooden  parts  of  seats 
and  desks.  The  disinfecting  shall  be  done  in  accordance  with  the 
rules  of  the  state  board  of  health. 

The  penalty  for  the  violation  of  above  law  is  a  fine  in  any  sum 
not  less  than  one  hundred  dollars  and  not  more  than  five  hundred 
dollars;  and  any  money  claim  for  material  entering  into  or  any 
money  claim  for  the  construction  of  any  schoolhouse,  which  does 
not  in  every  way  and  in  all  respects  comply  with  the  requirements 
specified,  shall  be  null  and  void. 

A  graphic  representation  of  the  extent  to  which  the  present 
school  plants  in  the  different  types  of  school  corporations  measure 
up  to  the  requirements  summarized  above  is  given  in  Figure  i.  It 
will  be  observed  that  the  buildings  for  consolidated  schools  equal 
or  surpass  buildings  for  all  other  types  in  all  requirements  except 
water  supply  and  toilets  and  second  only  to  cities  in  these  particu- 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       35 

lars.  In  the  one  item,  that  of  lighting,  in  which  all  schools  of  each 
type  might  have  been  made  to  measure  up  to  hygienic  requirements 
without  additional  expense  is  the  one  in  which  all  show  greatest 
deficiency.  The  enforcement  of  these  laws  will  result  in  a  radical 
change  in  the  architecture  for  rural  schools. 


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Figure  i.  A  chart  showing  what  per  cent  of  the  schools  of  each  type  studied, 
measure  up  to  the  standard  set  by  recent  legislation.  a — township  district  schools; 
b — township  consolidated  schools;    c — town  schools;     d — city  schools. 

[36] 


CHAPTER  III 
Distribution  of  Teachers  on  Basis  of  Sex,  Training,  Experi- 
ence, AND  Salary 

While  the  only  true  measure  of  efficiency  of  the  teaching  force 
of  a  school  system  is  to  be  determined  by  testing  the  results  before 
and  after  a  period  of  instruction,  we  do  know,  as  has  been 
shown  by  investigations  that  have  been  made,  that  there  is  a  corre- 
lation between  the  training  and  experience  of  the  teachers  in  a 
system  of  schools  and  the  ability  of  these  teachers  to  do  effective 
work.  It  will  be  necessary,  however,  before  attempting  to  give  the 
distribution  of  teachers  on  basis  of  training,  experience,  and  salary, 
in  the  four  types  of  schools  studied,  to  indicate  briefly  the  condi- 
tions and  legislation  that  have  led  to  the  present  situation  in  order 
to  have  a  basis  for  a  rational  interpretation  of  the  facts  presented. 

Prior  to  1894  no  academic  or  professional  training  was  required 
of  teachers  other  than  the  ability  to  pass  an  examination  in  the 
"Common  School  Branches"  and  "Theory  and  Art  of  Teaching". 
It  was  no  unusual  occurrence  for  a  boy  or  girl  from  the  common 
or  elementary  school,  to  study  the  "Teachers'  Reading  Circle"  books 
on  which  the  questions  in  theory  and  art  of  teaching  were  based, 
and  to  pass  an  examination  which  permitted  him  or  her  to  teach 
in  the  elementary  schools  of  the  state  without  having  had  any  train- 
ing beyond  the  eighth  grade.  There  was  a  law  requiring  applicants 
to  be  eighteen  years  of  age  before  they  could  be  granted  a  certifi- 
cate, but  it  was  no  unusual  thing  to  find  beginning  teachers  who 
were  only  sixteen  and  seventeen  years  of  age.  Before  any  legisla- 
tive measures  had  been  enacted  requiring  teachers  to  have  had  some 
academic  and  professional  training,  some  county  superintendents 
attempted  to  raise  the  standard  of  scholarship  of  the  teachers  by 
being  more  stringent  in  grading  the  manuscripts  of  applicants  for 
certificates  and  thus  caused  beginning  as  well  as  experienced  teach- 
ers to  attend  some  normal  school  or  college  during  the  spring  or 
summer  terms.  In  a  similar  manner  some  of  the  more  aggressive 
city  superinten(ients  encouraged  many  of  their  teachers  to  attend 
the  summer  sessions  of  normal  schools  and  colleges  by  promises  of 
promotion  and  increase  of  salaries  on  the  one  hand,  or  threatened 
dismissal  on  the  other,  but  such  efforts  were  spasmodic  and  not 
far-reaching.     Under  these  conditions  the  natural  result  was  that 


38       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

the  cities  with  their  longer  terms  of  school,  better  conditions  for 
work  and  higher  salaries,  would  have  a  larger  and  superior  group 
from  which  to  select  their  teachers  than  the  schools  in  the  rural 
communities. 

The  first  step  to  remedy  the  situation  was  taken  in  1898  by  the 
passage  of  a  minimum  salary  law  whereby  the  salary  a  teacher 
received  was  determined  by  the  grade  of  certificate  held.  The  grade 
of  certificate  of  a  beginning  teacher  was  determined  by  scholarship 
alone,  while  that  of  an  experienced  teacher  was  determined  by 
scholarship  and  a  "success  grade"  given  by  county  or  city  superin- 
tendent. A  teacher  holding  a  twelve  months'  certificate  received  a 
salary  per  diem  equal  to  two  and  one- fourth  cents  multiplied  by  the 
average  scholarship  attained  in  all  subjects  in  which  the  teacher 
was  required  to  pass  an  examination,  or  in  the  case  of  an  experi- 
enced teacher,  the  salary  per  diem  was  determined  by  multiplying 
two  and  one-fourth  cents  by  his  general  average,  that  is  the  average 
of  average  scholarship  and  "success  grade".  A  teacher  holding  a 
twenty- four  months'  certificate  received  a  salary  per  diem  equal 
to  two  and  one-half  cents  multiplied  by  his  general  average,  and  a 
teacher  holding  a  thirty-six  months'  certificate  received  a  daily 
salary  equal  to  two  and  three- fourths  cents  multiplied  by  his  gen- 
eral average.  The  effect  of  this  legislation  was  to  eliminate  the 
six-months'  or  trial  license  on  which  many  beginning  teachers  had 
been  teaching  and  to  stimulate  scholastic  attainment  among  all 
teachers.  It  also  caused  the  rural  teachers  to  be  paid  the  same 
salary  per  month  as  the  city  teachers  since  very  few  cities  paid 
more  at  that  time  than  the  minimum  salary  specified  by  law. 

A  higher  scholastic  attainment  and  more  specific  professional 
training  was  required  of  all  teachers  by  the  law  that  went  into 
effect  in  1907,  and  at  the  same  time  the  minimum  salary  was  in- 
creased. All  young  men  and  women  wishing  to  enter  the  teaching 
profession  after  this  date  were  required  to  have  had  an  academic 
training  equivalent  to  a  four  year  high  school  course  and  to  have 
had  at  least  twelve  weeks  of  specified  professional  training  before 
being  eligible  to  write  for  a  certificate.  All  candidates  who  met 
the  above  requirements  and  passed  an  examination^  in  the  common 
school  subjects  and  the  theory  and  art  of  teaching,  which  entitled 
them  to  a  twelve  months'  certificate,  were  in  class  A  and  received 
a  salary  per  diem  equal  to  two  and  one-half  cents  multiplied  by 
average  scholarship,  or  by  general  average,  in  the  case  of  an  experi- 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       39 

enced  teacher.  All  teachers,  who  in  addition  to  the  requirements 
for  class  A,  had  had  one  year  of  successful  experience,  an  addi- 
tional twelve  weeks  of  professional  training  and  held  a  twenty-four 
months'  certificate  were  in  class  B,  and  received  a  salary  per  diem 
equal  to  three  cents  multiplied  by  their  general  average.  Teachers 
who  were  graduates  from  schools  maintaining  a  professional  course 
for  training  of  teachers,  had  had  three  or  more  years  of  successful 
experience  and  passed  an  examination  which  entitled  them  to  a 
thirty-six  months'  certificate,  were  in  class  C  and  received  as  the 
minimum  salary  per  diem,  the  amount  equal  to  three  and  one-half 
cents  multiplied  by  their  general  average. 

With  this  brief  survey  of  the  requirements  that  obtained  for  all 
schools,  a  presentation  of  the  facts  concerning  sex,  training,  ex- 
perience, salary,  and  classification  of  the  teachers  in  each  type  of 
schools  is  given  followed  by  some  inferences  that  may  be  made 
from  the  same.  Table  vi  shows  the  number,  sex,  professional 
training,  experience  and  salaries  of  teachers  in  the  rural  schools 
of  each  township  included  in  this  study.  For  example,  in  township 
number  one,  there  were  five  teachers  employed,  three  of  whom 
were  men  and  two  were  women ;  two  had  had  twelve  weeks  and 
three  had  had  one  year  of  professional  training;  one  was  a  begin- 
ning teacher,  that  is,  had  had  no  experience ;  one  had  had  one  year ; 
one  ten  years;  one  fourteen  years;  and  one  fifteen  years  of  ex- 
perience. Two  of  the  five  teachers  were  in  class  A  with  an  average 
daily  salary  of  $2.00;  two  in  class  B  with  an  average  salary  of 
$2.92 ;  and  one  in  class  C  with  a  daily  salary  of  $3.46.  Tables  vii, 
VIII,  and  IX,  giving  data  for  consolidated,  town  and  city  schools, 
are  to  be  read  in  the  same  way. 

At  first  it  was  thought  advisable  to  distribute  the  salaries  of 
all  teachers  and  to  determine  the  central  tendency  and  mean  varia- 
tion of  the  whole  group,  but  it  was  found  that  such  a  method  would 
result  in  a  tri-modal  curve  and  that  the  average  for  each  class 
would  give  a  more  reliable  basis  for  comparison.  This  holds  true 
in  corporations  where  more  than  the  minimum  salary  is  paid,  since 
the  basis  for  the  salary  schedule  is  the  classification  of  teachers 
according  to  the  requirements  mentioned  above.  There  is  little 
variation  in  the  amount  paid  teachers  in  the  same  class  in  any 
corporation;  so  that  the  average  salary  of  the  teachers  of  each 
class  is  a  fair  index  of  all  the  teachers  of  that  class.  The  mean 
variation  is  so  small  for  any  one  corporation  that  it  is  almost 
negligible. 


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48       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

Table  x  gives  the  distribution  of  grade  teachers  according  to 
sex  in  each  of  the  four  types  of  schools  considered.  Ward  princi- 
pals are  included  with  the  grade  teachers  in  the  cities  since  much 
of  their  time  is  devoted  to  teaching.  The  total  number  of  cases 
in  each  type  is  given  first,  followed  by  the  number  of  men  and 
women  and  the  per  cent  of  each. 

TABLE  X 

DlSTHIBUTION    OF    GrADE   TeACHERS    ON    BaSIS    OF    SeX 


School   Corporation 

Total 

Men 

Women 

Per  cent 
of  Men 

Per  cent 
of  Women 

Township    

Consolidated     •  • 

Town    

City   

296 

90 

130 

623 

102 
IS 

61 

194 

562 

^^6 
18.5 
9.48 

65.6 
83.4 
81.5 
90.5 

It  will  be  observed  that  feminization  is  much  more  pronounced 
in  the  city  schools  in  which  less  than  ten  per  cent  of  the  total  grade 
teaching  population  are  men,  as  compared  with  sixteen  and  six- 
tenths  per  cent  in  the  consolidated  schools,  eighteen  and  five-tenths 
per  cent  in  town  schools,  and  thirty- four  and  four-tenths  per  cent 
in  the  rural  schools.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  one-third  of 
the  rural  teachers  are  men,  fewer  men  are  found  in  consolidated 
schools  than  in  the  town  schools.  With  consolidation  comes  the 
feminization  of  the  teaching  population. 

Professional  Preparation  of  Teachers 

Before  summarizing  the  data  on  the  training  of  teachers  and 
attempting  an  analysis  of  the  same,  a  brief  explanation  of  one  or 
two  points  is  necessary.  It  might  seem  that  other  periods  of  train- 
ing than  those  given  in  the  tables  should  be  included,  but  when  we 
keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  practically  each  period  given  has  a  legal 
significance  and  that  all  schools  of  Indiana  which  train  grade 
teachers  are  organized  on  the  twelve  week  term  basis,  it  is  readily 
understood  why  so  few  report  periods  of  training  longer  or  shorter 
than  those  called  for  in  the  table.  These  few  cases  are  grouped 
with  the  teachers  with  a  period  of  training  which  most  nearly 
represents  the  training  each  has  had.  For  example,  if  a  teacher 
reported  twenty  weeks,  that  teacher  was  included  with  the  group 
that  has  had  twenty-four  weeks  of  professional  training.  It  is  also 
necessary  to  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  law  requiring  teachers 
to  have  had  a  four  year  high  school  course  or  its  equivalent  before 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       49 


being  eligible  to  teach,  had  been  in  force  five  years  when  the  data 
for  this  investigation  were  collected,  so  that  all  teachers  with  five 
or  less  years  of  experience  were  high  school  graduates  before 
taking  the  required  professional  training  reported.  Teachers  with 
six  or  more  years  of  experience  may  or  may  not  have  been  high 
school  graduates  and  may  or  may  not  have  had  professional  train- 
ing. An  effort  was  made  to  collect  data  relative  to  academic 
training  of  all  teachers,  but  the  reports  were  so  incomplete  as  to 
render  it  impossible  to  secure  detailed  information  that  was  suffi- 
cient in  quantity  or  reliability  to  justify  a  distribution,  anaylsis, 
and  comparison  on  this  basis.  It  is  obvious  that  the  greater  the 
percentage  of  teachers  with  five  or  less  years  of  experience,  the 
less  the  percentage  without  academic  and  professional  training.  On 
the  other  hand  it  is  probably  true  that  from  among  the  experienced 
teachers  in  the  rural  schools  only  those  who  have  shown  some 
superior  natural  ability  would  be  selected  for  positions  in  the  towns 
and  cities ;  so  that  the  advantage  gained  by  the  rural  school  on 
account  of  the  former  is  more  than  offset  by  the  latter. 

TABLE  XI 
Summary  of  the  Distribution  of  Grade  Teachers  on  Basis  of  Training 


Corporation 

1 

CM 

1 
^  - 

u 
a 

m 

s 

>> 

1 

>> 

V 

V 

M 

H 

f 

s 

C 

Township 

Consolidated  . 

Town    

City   

35 

6 
32 

99 
12 

13 

54 

7? 
18 

25 

93 

59 

23 

47 

171 

27 
137 

1 

18 
100 

3 

5 

4 

30 

2 

2&8 

42.0 
52.0 

55.1 

TABLE  XII 
Percentile  Distribution  of  Grade  Teachers  on  Basis  of  Training 


Corporation 

4> 

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II 

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Consolidated 

Town    

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5.0 

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32.0 
13.5 

23.3 

20.2 
17.8 
15.0 

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25.8 
33.5 
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21.3 
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22.2 

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16.2 

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5.6 
2.8 

4.8 

.03 

28.8 
42.0 
52.0 
55-1 

[so] 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       51 

A  summary  of  the  training  of  teachers  in  the  grades  of  the  four 
types  of  schools  studied  is  given  in  Tables  xi  and  xii.  The  rela- 
tion of  distribution  of  teachers  in  one  type  of  schools  to  the 
other  types  is  shown  graphically  in  Figure  11.  From  these  tables 
it  is  seen  that  there  are  twice  as  many  teachers  in  the  township 
district  schools  who  have  had  no  professional  training  as  in  any 
of  the  other  types.  That  is  to  say,  there  are  twice  as  many  teachers 
in  the  rural  schools  of  Indiana  with  five  or  more  years  of  experience 
that  have  made  no  effort  to  fit  themselves  for  the  work  they  are 
trying  to  do  as  are  found  in  the  consolidated,  town,  or  city  schools. 

The  average  training  of  all  teachers  in  the  rural  schools  is 
twenty-eight  and  eight-tenths  weeks,  while  the  average  training  of 
all  teachers  in  the  consolidated  schools  is  forty-two  weeks;  of 
teachers  in  town  schools,  fifty-two  weeks,  and  of  teachers  in  city 
schools,  fifty-five  and  one-tenth  weeks.  Teachers  in  the  rural 
schools  have  had  only  sixty-eight  and  five-tenths  per  cent  the  pro- 
fessional training  that  teachers  in  the  consolidated  schools  have 
had,  fifty-five  and  four-tenths  per  cent  the  training  of  the  town 
teachers,  and  fifty-two  and  three-tenths  per  cent  the  training  that 
the  grade  teachers  in  cities  have  received. 

Experience  of  Teachers 

The  extent  to  which  the  rural  schools  are  made  the  training 
schools  for  teachers  in  other  types  is  seen  by  referring  to  Table 
XIII.  Of  the  total  number  of  beginning  teachers  in  1912-1913  in 
the  schools  studied,  seventy-two  per  cent  were  in  the  rural  schools, 
eleven  per  cent  in  the  city  schools,  nine  per  cent  in  the  town  schools, 
and  six  per  cent  in  the  consolidated  schools.  By  taking  into  consid- 
eration the  percentage  of  beginning  teachers  in  each  type,  we  find 
that  one  out  of  every  four  teachers  in  the  rural  schools  has  had 
no  experience  as  compared  with  one  in  every  fifteen  in  consolidated 
and  town  schools,  and  one  in  every  fifty  in  the  city  schools.  When 
we  take  into  consideration  the  fact  that  there  were  fewer  teachers 
in  the  township  district  schools  in  the  year  1912-1913  than  the 
previous  year,  while  there  was  an  increase  in  the  number  of  teachers 
in  the  city  schools,  the  facts  indicated  above  are  even  more  marked. 

The  median  number  of  years  of  experience  of  township  district 
teachers  is  two  and  sixty-five  hundredths,  while  the  median  for 
teachers  in  consolidated  schools  is  five  and  five-tenths,  for  teachers 
in  town  schools  it  is  six  and  thirteen-hundredths,  and  for  teachers 


TT^ 


[52] 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       53 

in  city  schools  it  is  seven.  Fifty  per  cent  of  the  teachers  in  the  rural 
schools  have  taught  one  to  seven  years  as  compared  with  the  same 
number  in  consolidated  schools  who  have  taught  two  and  one-half 
to  ten  years.  Fifty  per  cent  of  the  town  teachers  have  taught  three 
to  nine  years,  and  an  equal  number  in  city  schools  have  taught  five 
to  twelve  years. 

The  distribution  of  teachers  in  the  four  types  of  schools  on 
basis  of  service  is  shown  graphically  in  Figure  in.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  curve  of  distribution  of  rural  teachers  is  uni- 
lateral with  the  mode  at  zero.  The  mode  for  consolidated  school 
teachers  is  three  years.  The  curve  for  town  teachers  is  bi-modal, 
one  mode  being  at  three  years  and  the  other  at  six  years.  This 
may  be  due  to  a  lack  of  sufficient  number  of  cases,  but  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  mode  for  city  school  teachers  falls  between  these 
two,  being  at  five  years,  which  might  be  inferred  to  indicate  a  point 
of  greatest  transition  from  one  type  to  another. 

In  order  to  compare  the  results  of  this  investigation  with  other 
data  secured  by  a  diflferent  method,  the  writer  took  such  parts  of 
Dr.  Colfman's  tabulations  (See  The  Social  Composition  of  the 
Teaching  Population)  as  pertained  to  Indiana  and  reduced  them 
to  the  same  basis  as  the  tabulations  given  in  this  study.  The  com- 
parison of  the  results  of  Dr.  Coffman's  investigation  and  the  totals 
of  the  four  types  of  schools  as  derived  in  this  study  are  shown  in 
Figure  iv.  The  similarity  of  the  two  curves  is  quite  marked.  The 
variation  for  the  first  two  years  seems  to  indicate  that  Dr.  Coflfman 
had  a  relatively  larger  number  of  rural  teachers  than  is  included 
in  this  investigation.  This  inference  will  probably  account  for  the 
fact  that  the  median  experience  of  all  teachers  included  in  this 
investigation,  which  is  six  and  six-tenths  years,  is  slightly  higher 
than  the  median  given  by  Dr.  Coflf man's  data,  which  is  five  and 
two-tenths  years. 


TABLE  XIII 

Distribution  of  Grade  Teachers  on  Basis  of  Experience 


Number  of  teachers  in  each 
type 

Per  cent  of  teachers 
each  type 

in 

AU  types 
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1 

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72 

6 

9 

11 

24.5 

6.8 

6.5 

1.9 

98 

8.7 

40 

10 

6 

20 

17.0 

11.4 

4.3 

3.4 

86 

7.6 

37 

9 

11 

25 

12.6 

10.2 

7.9 

4.2 

82 

7.3 

16 

11 

18 

40 

5.5 

12.5 

13.0 

6.7 

85 

7.5 

13 

5 

14 

38 

4.4 

5.9 

10.0 

5.7 

70 

6.2 

11 

3 

8 

67 

3.7 

3.4 

5.8 

11.3 

89 

7.9 

12 

4 

19 

53 

4.2 

4.5 

13.8 

8.9 

88 

7.8 

11 

4 

11 

40 

3.7 

4.5 

7.9 

6.7 

66 

5.9 

9 

5 

5 

27 

3.1 

5.9 

3.6 

4.5 

46 

4.1 

7 

5 

7 

26 

2.4 

5.9 

5.1 

4.4 

45 

4.0 

11 

4 

6 

37 

3.7 

4.5 

4.3 

6.2 

58 

5.1 

4 

1 

6 

20 

1.4 

1.1 

4.3 

3.4 

33 

2.9 

5 

3 

4 

28 

1.7 

3.4 

2.9 

4.7 

40 

3.6 

5 

2 

2 

12 

1.7 

2.3 

1.4 

2.0 

21 

1.9 

4 

3 

1 

15 

1.4 

3.4 

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2.5 

23 

2.0 

5 

4 

2 

23 

1.7 

4.5 

1.4 

3.9 

34 

3.0 

4 

1 

0 

13 

1.4 

1.1 

0 

2.2 

18 

1.6 

3 

1 

0 

9 

1.1 

1.1 

0 

1.5 

13 

1.2 

3 

2 

1 

13 

1.1 

2.3 

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2.2 

19 

1.7 

2 

1 

0 

9 

.7 

1.1 

0 

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12 

1.1 

2 

1 

2 

22 

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1.1 

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3.7 

27 

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1 

0 

1 

5 

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7 

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0 

1 

4 

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0 

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6 

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0 

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5 

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0 

0 

4 

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0 

0 

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4 

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4 

1 

1 

9 

1.4 

1.1 

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1.5 

15 

1.3 

3 

2 

4 

28 

1.1 

2.3 

2.9 

4.7 

37 

3.3 

78 
83 
61 
49 
46 
50 

44 
25 
24 
25 
30 

11 
21 
9 
13 
15 

6 

7 


11 

3 
9 
2 
6 
4 
9 


11.6 
12.3 
8.9 
7.2 
6.8 
7.4 

6.5 
3.7 
3.5 
3.7 
4.5 

1.6 
3.2 
1.3 
1.9 
2.4 

.9 
1.0 
1.2 
1.2 
1.6 

.4 
1.3 
.3 
.9 
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1.3 


[54] 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       55 


TABLE  XIV 

Percentile  Distribution  of  Teachers  in  Given  Number  of  Years 
OF  Experience 


Years 

Township 

Consolidated 

Town 

City 

None - 

24.5 

43.2 

I7.I 

7.9 

5.0 

2.3 
I.I 

6.8 
43-4 
25.3 

% 

I.I 
2.3 

6.5 
41.0 

33-7 

10.7 

2.1 

2.1 

2.Z 

1.9 
31.3 
21.9 

16.5 

II. I 

4.4 

4.7 

I  -  5  years  . . . 

6-10  years  . . 
II  -  15  years  . . 
16-20  years  . . 
20-25  years  . . 
26  and  above  . 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  rural  schools  have  a  much 
larger  percentage  of  beginning  teachers,  it  will  be  observed  that 
the  number  of  teachers  with  one  to  five  years  of  experience  in  the 
first  three  types  is  nearly  the  same,  and  that  the  teachers  in  the 
city  schools  with  one  to  five  years  of  experience  is  much  smaller, 
but  that  in  the  longer  periods  of  service  the  city  has  a  larger  per 
cent.  This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  migration  from  the  rural 
schools  to  consolidated  and  town  schools  occurs  during  the  first 
five  years,  and  from  the  rural,  consolidated  and  town  schools  to 
the  city  schools  after,  as  well  as  during  this  time. 

Classification  and  Salaries  of  Teachers 

TABLE  XV 

Summary  of  Classification  and  Distribution  of  Teachers  on  Basis 

OF  Salaries  Received 


Corporation 

Total  Numbers 
ABC 

Per  cents 
ABC 

Salaries 
ABC 

Township    

Consolidated    

Town  

City    

141         83         72 
19        30        40 
21       60       47 
52     168     373 

47.6     28.0     24.3 

2I.I     2,Z:l     45.5 

16.4     46.8     36.7 

9.8     31.5     58.7 

$2.36  $2.88  $3.36 
2.50     2.91     3.53 
2.65     2.94     3.56 
2.53     3.06     3.58 

From  the  previous  table  it  is  to  be  expected  that  there  would 
be  a  much  larger  per  cent  of  class  A  teachers  in  the  rural  schools 
than  in  any  other  type.  The  consolidated  schools  rank  second. 
Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  consolidated  schools  had  about 
the  same  per  cent  of  inexperienced  teachers  as  the  towns,  according 
to  Table  xv,  the  towns  have  a  much  smaller  per  cent  of  class  A 
teachers  which  indicates  that  a  smaller  per  cent  of  experienced 
teachers  in  the  consolidated  schools  have  met  the  scholastic  and 
professional  training  necessary  for  promotion  to  a  higher  class. 
On  the  whole  the  consolidated  schools  with  forty-five  and  five-tenths 


56       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

per  cent  of  class  C  and  thirty-three  and  three-tenths  per  cent  of 
class  B  teachers  outrank  the  town  schools  with  thirty-six  and 
seven-tenths  per  cent  of  class  C  teachers  and  forty-six  and  eight- 
tenths  per  cent  of  class  B  teachers. 

The  general  effect  of  the  legislation  concerning  the  minimum 
salary  and  professional  training  of  teachers  has  been  to  cause  a 
gradual  increase  in  the  salaries  of  teachers  in  all  types  of  schools, 
especially  the  rural  schools.  By  taking  the  reports  of  the  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  for  the  years  1904  and  1910 
and  computing  the  average  salary  for  all  teachers  in  each  type  as 
tabulated  in  this  investigation,  we  get  the  following  results  which 
verify  the  above  statement: 

TABLE  XVI 
Average  Salary  of  All  Grade  Teachers  in  Each  Type  of  Schools  Com- 
pared WITH  Amounts  Received  in  1904  and  1910 


Township  Consolidated 


Town 


City 


1904   (report)    

1910   (report)    .... 

1912  (this  investigation) 


M.36        I       $  . . . 
2.62  2.97 

2.75         I         310 


^2.69 
3-II 
3-12 


$3.05 
3.14 
3-34 


It  would  seem  that  teachers  in  the  same  class  should  receive  the 
same  salary,  regardless  of  the  type  of  schools  in  which  they  teach. 
The  fact  that  class  A  teachers  in  the  rural  schools  receive  on  an 
average  only  two  dollars  and  thirty-six  cents  per  day,  while  teachers 
in  the  same  class  in  the  consolidated  schools  receive  two  dollars 
and  fifty  cents  per  day  and  the  teachers  in  the  towns  and  cities 
even  a  greater  amount,  may  be  due  to  one  of  two  reasons.  It  may 
be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  township  trustees  usually  pay  only  the 
minimum  amount  called  for  by  law  even  to  a  fraction  of  a  cent, 
while  the  officials  in  the  other  schools  are  governed  only  in  a  general 
way  by  the  minimum  salary  law  and  may  pay  even  a  little  more 
than  this  amount,  or  it  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  general 
average  of  all  teachers  in  each  class  in  the  rural  schools  is  lower 
than  in  the  other  types. 

The  minimum  salary  law  has  affected  the  distribution  of  teachers 
in  another  way.  It  is  a  frequent  occurrence  for  township  trustees,, 
on  account  of  a  false  notion  of  economy,  to  refuse  to  employ  any 
but  class  A  teachers,  while  officials  in  other  schools,  especially  of 
city  schools,  emphasize  the  fact  that  they  want  only  class  C 
teachers. 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana        57 

High  School  Teachers 

The  legislation,  a  summary  of  which  was  given  above,  has 
to  do  almost  entirely  with  grade  teachers.  Beginning  high  school 
teachers,  however,  must  have  had  the  professional  training  equiva- 
lent to  that  required  for  class  A  before  entering  the  profession,  but 
neither  advancement  nor  salary  is  dependent  on  the  classification 
that  obtains  for  grade  teachers,  since  very  few  high  school  teachers 
receive  a  smaller  salary  than  is  paid  elementary  teachers  in  class  C. 

It  is  usually  assumed  that  the  more  poorly  prepared  and  less 
experienced  as  well  as  the  most  poorly  paid  teachers  are  to  be 
found  in  the  more  remote  and  smaller  high  schools  of  the  state. 
It  will  be  our  endeavor  to  see  to  what  extent  this  assumption  holds 
true,  by  giving  as  many  of  the  facts  that  bear  on  the  situation  as 
possible  and  forming  such  conclusions  as  these  facts  will  warrant. 

The  original  data  are  given  in  Tables  xvii-xix  and  should  be 
read  in  the  same  manner  as  the  tables  for  grade  teachers.  On 
account  of  the  difficulty  in  tabulating  the  data  pertaining  to  salaries 
of  the  teachers  in  each  school,  the  original  data  are  not  given  in 
these  tables.  It  would  have  been  more  satisfactory  if  we  had  had 
a  greater  number  of  cases,  but  this  was  impossible  in  the  case  of 
consolidated  schools,  since  practically  all  that  have  been  established 
any  length  of  time  are  included.  The  results  obtained  from  data 
for  town  and  city  high  schools  indicate  that  we  have  a  representative 
sampling  and  that  a  greater  number  of  cases  would  not  change  the 
final  results  materially. 

The  summary  of  the  distribution  of  high  school  teachers  on  the 
basis  of  training  is  given  in  total  numbers  in  Table  xx  and  in 
per  cents  in  Table  xxi.  A  graphic  representation  of  the  same  is 
given  in  Figure  v.  The  returns  were  too  indefinite  to  permit  a 
detailed  distribution  of  those  who  had  had  post-graduate  work. 
It  ranged  from  six  weeks  to  two  years.  In  computing  the  average 
training  of  the  teachers  in  each  type  of  high  schools,  it  was  arbi- 
trarily assumed  that  one  year  would  be  a  fair  average  for  all  who 
reported  having  had  post-graduate  work.  This  is  probably  too 
large  and  would  favor  the  city  high  schools  since  one  out  of  every 
four  have  had  some  work  beyond  that  required  for  an  A.B.  degree, 
while  only  one  in  every  fifteen  in  the  town  and  consolidated  high 
schools  report  having  had  any  graduate  work.  The  central  ten- 
dency for  teachers  in  consolidated  schools  is  a  little  higher  than 


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[60] 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       6i 

TABLE  XX 
Summary  of  the  Training  of  High  School  Teachers 


Corporation 

c 
o 

CM 

u 
« 
>> 

1 

(A 

cd 
>i 
o 

H 

Si 

S 

3 

•a 

bO 
1 

It 

Consolidated    

Town   . . .  • 

City     

I 

I 

I 

7 

6 
14 

8 

27 

42 
113 

50 

3-55 

TABLE  XXI 
Percentile  Distribution  of  High  School  Teachers  on  Basis  of  Training 


M 

t 

t 

3 

^ 

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0) 

s 

-% 

-s 

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S 

ID 

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60.0 

6.7 

3..S.S 

Town   

1.2 

18.I 

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53.8 

77 

3.48 

City 

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.. 

3-3 

6.6 

I3.I 

S3.I 

23.5 

3.85 

that  of  the  town  high  schools,  but  a  little  lower  than  the  central 
tendency  for  city  high  schools.  The  curves  of  distribution  are  very 
similar  except  that  the  variation  for  city  teachers  is  greater.  On 
the  whole,  the  training  of  teachers  in  the  city  high  schools  is  very 
little  superior  to  the  training  of  teachers  in  the  consolidated  and 
town  high  schools,  which  would  indicate  that  some  other  factor 
than  the  amount  of  professional  training  was  the  determining  factor 
in  the  distribution  of  high  school  teachers. 


[62] 


1  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       63 


TABLE  XXII 
Distribution  of  High  School  Teachers  on  Basis  of  Experience 


Total  Numbers 

Per  cents 

I 

5 

1 

1 

1 

1 

§ 

1 

1 

^^ 

1 

1 

^ 

> 

^ 

H 

u 

0 

e2 

u 

0 

5 

3 

3 

11.4 

3.8 

1.5 

1 

3 

6 

11 

6.8 

7.6 

5.4 

2 

4 

4 

9 

9.1 

5.1 

4.4 

3 

5 

6 

19 

11.4 

7.6 

9.3 

4 

6 

11 

22 

13.6 

13.9 

10.7 

5 

1 

9 

20 

2.3 

11.4 

9.8 

6 

2 

6 

12 

4.6 

7.6 

5.9 

7 

1 

6 

16 

2.3 

7.6 

8.8 

8 

5 

7 

10 

11.4 

8.9 

4.9 

9 

1 

3 

6 

2.3 

3.8 

3.0 

10 

1 

4 

14 

2.3 

5.1 

6.9 

11 

0 

2 

9 

2.6 

4.4 

12 

1 

1 

7 

2.3 

1.3 

3.5 

13 

2 

2 

5 

4.6 

2.6 

2.5 

14 

1 

3 

5 

2.3 

3.8 

2.5 

15 

2 

1 

7 

4.6 

1.3 

3.5 

16 

0 

5 

2.5 

17 

1 

3 

2.3 

1.5 

18 

1 

.5 

19 

2 

1.0 

20 

2 

5 

2.6 

2.5 

21 

1 

4 

2.3 

2.0 

22-25 

3 

5 

3.85 

2.5 

26- 

2 

4 

4.6 

2.0 

A  summary  of  the  distribution  of  high  school  teachers  on  the 
basis  of  experience  is  given  in  Table  xvii.  It  will  be  observed  that 
there  is  a  much  greater  percentage  of  beginning  teachers  to  be 
found  in  the  consolidated  high  schools  than  in  the  town  and  city 
high  schools.  This  field  is  so  limited,  however,  that  the  consolidated 
schools  cannot  be  said  to  be  the  training  schools  for  the  other  two 
types  as  the  rural  schools  are  said  to  be  training  schools  for  grade 
teachers  in  consolidated,  town,  and  city  schools.  The  limited  num- 
ber of  beginning  teachers  in  the  high  schools  may  be  explained  by 
the  fact  that  most  high  school  teachers  have  had  experience  in 
grade  work  before  entering  the  high  schools.  To  what  extent  this 
holds  true,  cannot  be  determined  from  the  data  at  hand.    It  can  be 


^sr5 


[64] 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       65 

said,  relatively  speaking,  that  three  times  as  many  inexperienced 
teachers  entering  the  high  schools  without  experience,  begin  in 
the  township  consolidated  high  schools  as  begin  in  the  town  high 
schools,  and  seven  times  as  many  as  begin  in  the  city  high  schools. 
In  other  words,  a  college  graduate  with  no  experience  will  find  it 
three  times  easier  to  get  a  position  in  a  consolidated  high  school 
than  in  a  town  high  school,  and  seven  times  easier  than  to  enter  a 
city  high  school,  leaving  out  of  consideration  for  the  moment,  the 
difference  in  the  number  of  schools  in  each  type. 

The  graph.  Figure  vi,  showing  the  distribution  of  teachers  as 
given  in  Table  xvii,  shows  that  we  have  too  limited  a  number  of 
cases  in  the  consolidated  high  school  to  warrant  many  inferences 
with  reference  to  experience  of  teachers.  The  curves  of  distribu- 
tion for  towns  and  cities  are  quite  similar  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  there  are  three  times  as  many  cases  in  the  latter  as  in  the 
former.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  modes  for  the  three  types  of 
schools  are  the  same.  The  median  number  of  years  of  experience 
of  teachers  in  the  consolidated  schools  is  four  and  eight-threehun- 
dredths.  The  median  number  of  years  of  experience  of  the  teachers 
in  the  high  schools  of  the  towns  is  six  and  eight-hundredths,  and 
that  of  the  teachers  in  the 'city  high  schools  is  seven  and  thirty- 
eight  hundredths  years.  These  facts  as  well  as  the  limited  returns 
as  to  "length  of  service  in  present  position"  indicate  that  changes 
are  more  frequent  in  consolidated  schools  than  in  either  of  the 
other  two  types.  An  effort  was  made  to  secure  data  that  would 
permit  an  analysis  of  the  situation  as  to  length  of  service  in  one 
position,  but  the  returns  were  inadequate  for  this  purpose.  Con- 
sidering all  the  facts  at  hand,  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  experience 
is  a  much  more  vital  factor  in  the  distribution  of  high  school 
teachers  than  is  academic  and  professional  training. 

Contrary  to  common  opinion,  the  facts  as  revealed  in  Table 
XXIII  fail  to  show  the  great  advantage  that  teachers  in  the  city 
high  schools  are  thought  to  enjoy  from  the  standpoint  of  salaries 
received,  over  the  teachers  in  the  consolidated  and  town  high 
schools.  The  median  salary  of  all  teachers,  including  the  principals, 
in  the  city  high  schools  is  four  dollars  and  fifty- four  cents  per  day 
with  an  average  deviation  of  sixty-one  cents,  while  the  median 
salary  of  teachers  in  the  consolidated  high  schools  is  four  dollars 
and  forty-eight  cents  with  an  average  deviation  of  fifty-five  cents, 
and  in  the  town  high  schools  it  is  four  dollars  and  forty-six  cents 


lU 


NO 


O 
NO 


5    a 


« 


^^ 


-s 


O  j2 

6^ 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       67 


TABLE  XXIII 


Distribution  of  High  School 

Teachers 

,  Including 

the  Principals,  on  the 

Basis  of  Daily  Salary 

Number  of  teachers  in  each  tjrpe 

Per  cent  of  teachers  in  each  type 

receiving  salary  given 

receiving  salary  given 

DaUy 
Salary 

Consoli- 
dated 

Town 

City 

Consoli- 
dated 

Town 

City 

$3.00 

1 

1 

0 

1.95 

1.38 

0.00 

3.25 

3 

2 

2 

5.88 

2.77 

1.25 

3.50 

4 

8 

8 

7.84 

11.11 

5.00 

3.75 

4 

6 

15 

7.84 

8.22 

9.37 

4.00 

7 

14 

27 

13.92 

18.43 

16.87 

4.25 

7 

6 

25 

13.92 

8.22 

15.62 

4.50 

6 

6 

19 

11.76 

8.22 

11.88 

4.75 

3 

4 

19 

5.88 

5.55 

11.87 

5.00 

7 

6 

17 

13.92 

8.22 

10.62 

5.25 

2 

2 

7 

3.92 

2.77 

4.57 

5.50 

3 

4 

3 

5.88 

5.55 

1.88 

5.75 

1 

2 

1.95 

2.77 

1.25 

6.00 

1 

4 

1.95 

1.38 

2.50 

6.25 

1 

4 

1.95 

6.94 

2.50 

6.50 

1 

1.38 

.63 

6.75 

2 

2.77 

1.25 

7.00 

1 

1 

1.95 

1.38 

.62 

7.25 

3 

1.38 

1.87 

7.50 

1 

1.38 

.66 

Median 

$4.48 

$4.46 

$4.54 

A  D 

$0.55 

$0.82 

$0.61 

with  an  average  deviation  of  eighty-three  cents.  There  is  a  greater 
variabiUty  in  the  salaries  of  teachers  in  the  town  high  schools  than 
in  either  of  the  other  two  types.  With  the  thought  of  determining 
the  cause  of  this  greater  deviation,  a  second  table  was  compiled 
(see  Table  xxiv),  omitting  the  high  school  principals  who  on 
account  of  some  administrative  work  and  supervision  of  the  work 
of  the  grades  receive  a  higher  salary  than  the  regular  high  school 
teachers.  Naturally  the  effect  will  be  much  more  pronounced  on 
the  type  of  high  schools  employing  the  fewer  number  of  teachers. 
The  median  salary  was  found  to  be  four  dollars  and  fourteen  cents 
per  day  with  an  average  deviation  of  forty-one  cents  for  teachers 
in  the  consolidated  high  schools,  not  including  the  principals,  four 
dollars  and  seven  cents  with  an  average  deviation  of  forty-three 
cents  for  teachers  in  the  town  high  schools,  and  four  dollars  and 
forty- two  cents  with  an  average  deviation  of  forty-five  cents  for 
teachers  in  the  city  high  schools.  While  the  median  salary  of  the 
entire  teaching  population  in  the  three  types  of  schools  is  practically 


68       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 


the  same,  the  higher  salary  paid  the  principals  of  the  consolidated 
and  town  high  schools  as  compared  with  the  salary  paid  regular 
teachers,  causes  the  salary  of  the  regular  teachers  in  the  high 
schools  to  be  a  little  lower  than  that  paid  the  teachers  in  the  city 
high  schools.  Generally  speaking,  the  principalship  of  a  smaller 
high  school  is  more  desirable  from  the  standpoint  of  salary  than 
is  a  regular  teaching  position  in  city  high  schools. 

Figure  vii  shows  the  distribution  of  high  school  teachers  on 
basis  of  salary  in  the  three  types  of  schools  when  the  principals 
were  included,  while  Figure  viii  shows  the  distribution  without  the 
principals.  The  second  mode  at  five  dollars  for  teachers  in  consoli- 
dated schools  and  at  six  dollars  and  twenty-five  cents  for  teachers 
in  the  town  high  schools  in  Figure  vii  are  not  present  in  Figure  viii, 
which  would  indicate  that  these  are  the  most  frequent  salaries  of 
the  principals  in  these  two  types.  The  greater  difference  in  the 
median  salaries  of  consolidated  and  town  high  school  teachers  when 
principals  are  included,  also  shows  that  the  principals  in  the  town 
schools  receive  a  larger  salary  in  relation  to  the  number  of  teachers 

TABLE  XXIV 

Distribution  of  High  School  Teachers,  Not  Including  the  Principals,  on 

Basis  of  Salary 


Number  of  teachers  receiving 

Per  cent  of  teachers  in  each  type  receiving 

salary  given 

salary  given 

Daily 

Salary 

Consoli- 
dated 

Town 

City 

Consoli- 
dated 

Town 

City 

$3.00 

1 

1 

3.12 

2 

3.25 

3 

2 

2 

9.36 

4 

1.46 

3.50 

4 

8 

8 

12.48 

16 

5.84 

3.75 

4 

5 

15 

12.48 

10 

10.95 

4.00 

7 

13 

27 

21.85 

26 

19.70 

4.25 

6 

5 

25 

18.73 

10 

18.10 

4.50 

3 

5 

14 

9.36 

10 

10.20 

4.  5 

3 

4 

19 

9.36 

8 

13.80 

5.00 

1 

6 

15 

3.12 

12 

10.90 

5.25 

1 

6 

2 

4.30 

5.50 

1 

1.46 

5.75 

1 

1.46 

6.00 

2 

2.92 

6.25 

1 

1.46 

6.50 

6.75 

1 

1.46 

Median 
A  D 


$4.14 
.405 


$4.07 
.426 


$4.42 
.541 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       69 

under  them  than  do  the  principals  of  consolidated  schools.  Taking 
the  school  as  a  whole,  the  consolidated  high  school  teachers  are 
better  paid  than  teachers  in  the  town  high  schools. 

Special  Teachers  and  Supervisors 

The  nature  and  extent  of  the  work  of  special  teachers  and  super- 
visors is  so  varied  that  it  is  difficult  to  get  any  basis  for  comparison 
of  the  work  in  the  different  types  of  schools.  In  one  school  a 
supervisor  may  do  all  the  teaching  in  a  special  subject,  such  as 
music,  or  she  may  plan  the  work  for  the  entire  system,  giving 
special  instruction  and  supervising  the  work  of  the  grade  teachers, 
or  she  may  devote  the  greater  part  of  her  time  to  instruction  in 
the  high  school  and  merely  plan  the  work,  secure  materials  and 
special  aids  for  the  regular  teachers.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the  fact 
that  a  school  system  has  a  special  teacher  on  its  pay-roll  who  devotes 
all  her  time  and  energy  along  the  line  of  her  specialty  would  indicate 
that  that  system  of  schools  is  giving  greater  consideration  to  that 
line  of  work  than  a  school  system  that  has  no  such  teacher. 

The  state  board  of  education  requires  high  schools  to  give  work 
in  music  and  drawing  in  order  to  be  commissioned  or  certified,  as 
the  case  may  be.  In  order  to  meet  this  requirement,  some  school 
boards  secure  local  talent  to  give  a  few  hours'  instruction  in  the 
high  school  each  week.  In  one  case  it  was  reported  that  the  salary 
per  day  of  a  music  teacher  was  five  dollars  while  the  monthly  pay- 
roll showed  that  she  received  twenty-five  dollars  per  month.  In  a 
number  of  cases  the  work  in  music  and  drawing  was  taught  by 
teachers  of  the  regular  high  school  subjects,  which  would  mean 
that  no  attention  was  given  to  these  subjects  in  the  grades  except 
as  was  given  by  the  grade  teachers  themselves.  Cases  were 
found  where  teachers  were  employed  to  give  instruction  in  a  special 
line  of  work,  but  were  also  required  to  take  one  or  more  classes  in 
the  regular  high  school  subjects. 

The  two  cases  in  Table  xxv  where  a  special  teacher  gives  in- 
struction in  music  and  drawing  in  the  township  district  schools,  are 
examples  of  a  recent  movement  in  Indiana  to  provide  instruction 
for  the  rural  schools  in  some  of  the  special  subjects  that  is  in  a  way 
comparable  with  that  given  in  consolidated,  town,  and  city  schools. 
A  few  townships  or  combination  of  townships  employ  a  special 
teacher  who  goes  from  school  to  school  to  give  instruction  in  music 
and  drawing.     Recent  legislation  has  provided   for  an  agent  or 


yo       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

supervisor  for  each  county  who  shall  devote  his  whole  time  to  the 
rural  schools.  While  it  is  not  mandatory,  many  counties  are  pre- 
paring to  take  up  this  work  as  provided  for  by  law.  In  some  cases 
the  transportation  of  these  special  teachers  is  provided  by  the  town- 
ship, while  in  others  the  teachers  have  to  provide  their  own  con- 
veyances. These  teachers  give  out  plans  and  material  and  give 
instruction  to  the  teachers  at  each  regular  meeting  of  the  teachers 
in  township  institutes;  so  that  the  work  can  be  made  as  effective 
as  in  schools  located  in  centers  of  population. 

TABLE  XXV 
Special  Teachers  and  Supervisors 


Number 

Per  cent 

Number  and  per  cent  of  school  corpora- 
tions with 

2 

Pi 

!« 
a^ 

a 

Pi 

^ 

H 

i 

1  No  special  teacher  or  supervisor 

2  One  special  teacher  or  supervisor 

3  Two  special  teachers  or  supervisors 

4  Three  special  teachers  or  supervisors 
Four  special  teachers  or  supervisors 
Five  special  teachers  or  supervisors 

Number  of  school  corporations  in  which 

the  special  subjects  are  taught  by 
Regular  teachers 
One  special  teacher  for  music 
One  special  teacher  for  drawing 
One  special  teacher  for  music  and  draw- 
ing 
One  special  teacher  for  music,  drawing, 

and  domestic  art 
One  special  teacher  for  domestic  science 
One  special  teacher  for  manual  training 
One  special  teacher  for  agriculture 
One  special  teacher  for  penmanship 
One    sf>ecial    teacher    for    German   in 

grades 
Supervisor  of  primary  work 

29 

2 

2 

0 
6 

7 

7 
6 

6 

1 

3 

12 

2 

2 

7 
1 
1 

11 

1 

5 

1 

8 
4 
8 
7 
3 
2 

3 
13 
10 

10 

8 
9 

2 

1 
2 

93.5 
6.4 

6.6 

17.6 
35.3 
41.3 

41.2 
35.3 

35.3 

5.8 

32 

48 

8 

8 

28 
4 
4 

44 

4 

20 

4 

00 
16.6 
33.3 
28.0 
12.5 
8.3 

12.5 
54.2 
41.6 

41.6 

33.3 
37.5 

8.3 

4.16 
8.3 

Table  xxv  shows  that  consolidated  schools  are  giving  greater 
consideration  to  the  newer  subjects  than  the  town  schools.  Thirty- 
two  per  cent  of  the  latter  have  no  special  teacher  or  supervisor, 
forty-eight  per  cent  with  only  one,  and  eight  per  cent  with  two  spe- 
cial teachers,  as  compared  with  seventeen  per  cent  of  the  consoli- 
dated schools  with  no  special  teacher,  thirty-five  per  cent  with  only 
one,  and  forty-one  per  cent  with  two  special  teachers.     This  same 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       71 

fact  is  shown  a  little  farther  down  in  the  table  where  forty-four 
per  cent  of  the  towns  have  the  one  special  teacher  for  both  music 
and  drawing,  while  the  consolidated  schools  have  a  special  teacher 
for  the  two  subjects  in  only  thirty-five  per  cent  of  the  schools.  The 
consolidated  schools  far  surpass  the  town  schools  and  compare  very 
favorably  with  the  city  schools  in  the  number  in  which  there  is  a 
special  teacher  for  each  of  the  two  subjects,  music  and  drawing. 
In  all  cases  in  the  consolidated  schools  manual  training  was  taught 
by  some  teacher  who  was  selected  primarily  to  teach  other  subjects. 
The  same  was  true  in  the  town  schools  with  one  exception.  While 
agriculture  was  given  considerable  attention  by  a  number  of  schools, 

TABLE  XXVI 
Distribution  of  Special  Teachers  on  Basis  of  Salary 


Number 

Per  cent 

1 

c3^ 

e2 

•5 

1 

P4 

I1 

Ut3 

^ 

B 

$2.00 

1 

1 

1 

5.8 

6.2 

2 

2.50 

1 

2 

1 

1 

50 

11.7 

6.2 

2 

3.00 

4 

2 

2 

23.5 

12  A 

4 

3.25 

1 

4 

2 

4 

50 

23.5 

12  A 

8 

3.50 

4 

2 

4 

23.5 

12  A 

8 

3.75 

2 

2 

6 

11.7 

12  A 

12 

4.00 

3 

10 

18.6 

20 

4.25 

1 

9 

6.2 

18 

4.50 

8 

16 

4.75 

3 

6 

5.00 

2 

1 

12.4 

2 

6.00 

1 

Median 


$3.34        $3.67        $4.17 


especially  the  town  and  consolidated  schools,  only  one  teacher  was 
found  who  was  selected  primarily  for  that  work,  and  that  was  in 
a  town  school.  While  domestic  science  and  domestic  art  are  given 
as  much  attention  in  the  consolidated  schools  as  in  the  town  schools, 
as  we  shall  see  a  little  later,  we  find  that  the  former  have  only  one 
school  where  a  special  teacher  has  this  work,  while  special  teachers 
are  provided  in  twenty-four  per  cent  of  the  town  schools,  and  thirty- 
three  per  cent  of  the  city  schools.  Special  teachers  of  penmanship, 
German  in  the  grades,  and  supervisors  of  primary  work  were  found 
only  in  a  very  small  per  cent  of  the  cities. 


72       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

The  salaries  of  special  teachers  per  diem  in  the  consolidated 
schools  are  lower  than  the  salaries  of  special  teachers  in  the  towns, 
which  is  the  reverse  of  what  was  found  concerning  the  salaries  of 
regular  teachers,  both  in  the  grades  and  high  school.  The  median 
salary  of  the  special  teachers  in  the  consolidated  schools  is  three 
dollars  and  thirty- four  cents  per  day  as  compared  with  the  median 
salary  of  three  dollars  and  sitxy-seven  cents  for  the  special  teachers 
in  the  town  and  the  median  salary  of  four  dollars  and  seventeen 
cents  for  the  special  teachers  in  the  city  schools. 

The  salaries  of  special  teachers  in  all  schools  are  lower  than 
the  salaries  of  the  regular  high  school  teachers,  but  somewhat  better 
than  the  salaries  of  the  regular  grade  teachers  as  will  be  observed 
by  referring  to  Table  xxvii. 

TABLE  XXVII 
Median  Salaries  of  Grade,  Special,  and  High  School  Teachers  in  Con- 


SOLIDATED, 

Town,  and 

City  Schools 

Grade 
Teachers 

Special 
Teachers 

High  School 
Teachers 

Consolidated 

$3.10 
3.12 
3-34 

$3.34 
3.67 
4.17 

$4.14 
4.07 
4.42 

Town    

City     

CHAPTER  IV 
Enrichment  of  Curricula 

A  good  test  of  the  kind  of  work  a  school  is  doing,  though  some- 
what intangible,  is  to  study  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  effort  of 
that  school  to  enrich  its  course  of  study.  Not  plans  and  outlines 
on  paper  merely,  but  enrichment  in  the  sense  that  an  effort  is  made 
to  bring  to  the  child  those  things  demanded  by  the  life  he  is  living 
and  the  problems  he  will  have  to  meet  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
cause  an  appreciation  and  response  on  the  part  of  the  child.  It  may 
happen  that  a  certain  school  has  introduced  manual  training  with 
the  idea  of  satisfying  the  ambitious  desires  of  a  city  superintendent 
to  keep  apace  with  what  some  other  school  or  superintendent  is 
doing  and  there  be  a  decided  lack  of  any  understanding  of  what 
should  be  attempted  or  the  values  to  be  realized.  On  the  other  hand 
a  superintendent  and  his  teachers  may  gradually  develop  a  line  of 
work  in  response  to  local  needs  without  giving  a  specific  name  to  it 
or  a  definite  time  and  place  in  the  curriculum,  but  correlate  it  with 
some  of  the  traditional  subjects.  While  it  may  be  true  that  one 
school  does  more  work  in  a  certain  line,  nature  study,  for  example, 
in  connection  with  home  geography,  than  another  school  which  has 
a  definite  time  and  place  in  its  course  for  this  work,  it  is  more  than 
probable,  at  this  stage  in  the  evolution  of  our  schools,  that  the 
extent  to  which  the  newer  subjects  are  given  a  definite  place  in  the 
curricula  of  the  different  types  of  schools  may  be  considered  a  fair 
index  of  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  work  that  is  being  done  by 
them  along  these  lines.  It  is  on  this  assumption  that  a  presentation 
of  the  time  and  place  of  the  newer  subjects  in  the  curricula  of  the 
different  types  of  schools  is  given  in  a  more  or  less  detailed  manner. 

The  legislature  and  the  state  board  of  education  have  had  a  de- 
termining influence  on  the  curricula  of  schools.  The  law  enacted  in 
1869,  which  is  still  in  force,  pertaining  to  what  shall  be  taught  in 
the  common  schools  of  the  state  is  as  follows : 

"The  common  schools  of  the  state  shall  be  taught  in  the  English 
language  and  the  trustee  shall  provide  to  be  taught  in  them  orthog- 
raphy, reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  English  grammar,  physiology, 
history  of  the  United  States,  and  good  behavior,  and  such  other 
branches  of  learning  and  other  languages  as  the  advancement  of 
the  pupil  may  require  and  the  trustees  from  time  to  time  direct. 
And  whenever  parents  and  guardians  of  twenty-five  or  more  chil- 


74       ^  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

dren  in  attendance  at  any  school  of  a  township,  town,  or  city  shall 
so  demand,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  school  trustee  or  trustees  of 
said  township,  town,  or  city  to  procure  an  efficient  teacher  and 
introduce  the  German  language  as  a  branch  of  study  in  such 
schools;  and  the  tuition  in  said  schools  shall  be  without  charge, 
provided  such  demand  is  made  before  a  teacher  for  said  district  is 
employed."  To  the  above  list  of  required  subjects  was  added 
''Scientific  Temperance"  in  1895. 

The  great  factor  in  determiniiig  the  curricula  of  the  schools  of 
the  state  has  been  the  initiative  and  leadership  of  the  state  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction  supported  by  the  state  board  of  edu- 
cation. The  control  the  state  superintendent  has  in  formulating 
the  course  of  study  for  the  schools  of  the  state  has  been  gained  by 
the  exercise  of  initiative  on  the  part  of  certain  men  who  have  held 
this  position  and  by  virtue  of  the  power  delegated  to  this  office 
rather  than  by  any  direct  legislation.  Prior  to  1894  each  county 
board  of  education  was  supposed  to  adopt  a  course  of  study  for  the 
schools  of  the  county,  but  at  a  meeting  of  the  county  superinten- 
dents* association  of  that  year  a  resolution  was  passed  which  placed 
the  construction  of  the  course  of  study  in  the  hands  of  the  state 
superintendent.  The  course  is  adopted  and  enforced  by  the  county 
board  of  education  of  each  county,  though  modifications  and  addi- 
tions may  be  made  by  any  school  corporation  if  sanctioned  by  the 
state  department  so  long  as  these  changes  do  not  interfere  with  the 
subjects  specified  by  law.  On  account  of  the  fact  that  the  rural 
schools  had  the  greatest  need  for  a  definite  course  of  study  to  guide 
the  work  in  these  schools,  it  has  been  planned  to  fit  the  conditions 
and  meet  the  needs  of  the  rural  school  particularly  so  that  modifica- 
tions need  to  be  made  to  fit  the  course  of  study  to  the  organization 
of  town  and  city  schools  with  their  longer  school  year  as  well  as 
local  needs.  Naturally,  a  course  of  study  planned  for  a  six  months' 
rural  school  would  not  be  suited  to  a  nine  or  ten  months'  school  year 
of  town  and  city  without  some  adjustments.  The  course  of  study 
issued  by  the  state  superintendent  for  the  year  1913-1914  is  a 
marked  improvement  over  preceding  courses.  It  is  organized  on 
the  semester  basis  with  a  maximum  and  minimum  amount  of  work 
specified,  the  minimum  amount  to  be  covered  by  the  rural  schools 
with  a  shorter  school  year,  and  the  maximum  to  be  completed  by 
schools  which  continue  in  session  eight  or  nine  months.  It  also 
provides  for  the  correlation  of  the  work  in  rural  schools  so  as  to 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana        75 

make  possible  a  reduction  in  the  number  of  classes  and  specifies  in 
more  detail  the  work  that  should  be  covered  by  schools  with  short 
school  year  and  what  should  be  added  in  schools  which  continue 
in  session  a  longer  period.  While  the  matter  of  seeing  that  teachers 
follow  the  state  course  of  study  in  the  grades  is  left,  for  the  most 
part,  to  local  officials,  the  state  board  of  education  exercises  direct 
supervision  of  the  work  of  the  high  schools.  A  high  school  is  not 
compelled  to  use  the  course  of  study  issued  by  the  state  department, 
but  the  courses  used  must  be  approved  in  order  for  this  school  to 
retain  its  commission  or  certificate  as  the  case  may  be.  The  required 
work  in  the  more  recent  courses  is  limited  and  definite,  with  exten- 
sive electives,  so  that  it  is  possible  for  a  pupil  to  select  most  any  kind 
of  a  course  he  may  desire.  He  may  take  work  that  will  fit  him  to 
meet  college  entrance  requirements  or  he  may  take  more  practical 
work  and  specialize  in  science  and  agriculture. 

The  state  manual  or  course  of  study  for  the  grades  for  the  year 
1911-1912  gave  definite  outlines  for  the  work  in  the  required  sub- 
jects for  each  year  they  were  to  be  taught,  combining  and  corre- 
lating physiology,  hygiene  and  scientific  temperance,  and  in  addi- 
tion, gave  detailed  outlines  for  work  in  music  and  agriculture,  and 
general  suggestions  for  work  in  drawing.  This  course  was  adopted 
by  most,  if  not  all,  county  boards  of  education  and  became  the 
official  guide  for  all  rural  and  consolidated  schools.  All  rural 
schools  were  found  to  be  using  this  state  manual,  but  when  a  more 
detailed  investigation  was  made,  it  was  found  in  several  cases,  and 
probably  is  true  in  many  schools,  that  it  was  followed  in  so  far  as 
it  pertained  to  the  textbook  work  in  the  traditional  subjects  but 
that  little  attention  was  given  to  elementary  language  and  history 
work  and  to  the  newer  subjects  of  the  curriculum  such  as  music, 
drawing,  agriculture,  manual  training,  and  domestic  science.  Ex- 
ceptions were  found  where  schools  were  in  charge  of  well-trained, 
experienced  teachers.  All  consolidated  schools  use  the  state  course 
of  study  in  the  grades  without  modification,  with  one  exception,  in 
which  case  a  local  course  in  geography  was  planned.  The  situation 
in  the  town  schools  was  very  similar  to  that  found  in  the  consoli- 
dated schools,  while  the  greatest  deviations  from  the  state  course 
of  study  were  found  in  the  city  schools.  The  number  and  per  cent 
of  schools  using  the  state  manual  without  and  with  modification 
and  the  number  using  a  course  of  study  planned  for  the  one  school, 
is  given  in  Table  xxviii. 


76       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

TABLE  XXVIII 

Courses  of  Study  Used  in  the  Four  Types  of  Schools 


Grades 

High  School 

Number 

Per  cent 

Number 

Per  cent 

h 

§•2 
art 

using 

using 

using 

usmg 

§  >> 

1 

4> 

S 

1 

-% 
a 

i 

"« 
^ 

i 

S 

1 

Rural 

30 

30 

100 

Consolidated 

17 

16 

1 

94.1 

5.6 

12 

4 

1 

70.4 

23.5 

5.9 

Town 

25 

25 

100 

21 

4 

84.0 

16.0 

City 

24 

4 

10 

10 

16.6 

41.6 

41.6 

4 

10 

10 

16.6 

41.6 

41.6 

It  will  be  observed  from  the  above  table  that  the  state  manual 
is  used  in  practically  all  schools  in  the  grades  except  in  the  cities. 
While  the  table  shows  that  eighty-three  per  cent  of  the  city  schools 
used  either  a  modified  form  of  the  state  course  of  study  or  a  course 
locally  planned,  an  examination  of  these  courses  shows  that  few 
of  them  differ  greatly  from  the  state  manual.  The  answers  to  the 
inquiry,  "How  different  from  state  course  of  study?"  show  that 
the  efforts  to  adapt  the  state  course  of  study  or  to  plan  a  course 
that  would  meet  the  local  conditions  and  needs  were  confined,  for 
the  most  part,  to  a  redivision  of  the  work  outlined  in  the  state 
manual  and  to  suggestions  for  supplementing  this  work.  Some  of 
the  answers  given  to  this  question  by  superintendents  who  were  not 
influenced  by  the  state  course  of  study  any  more  than  by  courses 
from  other  cities  were:  "Greater  correlation  of  subjects",  "Less 
formal  grammar  and  more  constructive  language  work",  "Emphasis 
on  manual  training  and  domestic  science",  "German  in  the  grades", 
"Place  for  physical  and  social  education",  and  "Use  of  supple- 
mentary readers".  The  last  refers  to  a  series  of  texts  not  adopted 
by  the  state. 

The  fact  that  the  state  manual  is  so  extensively  used  as  issued 
and  in  a  modified  form  in  the  different  schools  of  the  state  is  due 
to  the  nature  of  the  training  and  experience  of  the  principals  or 
superintendents  in  the  consolidated,  town,  and  quite  a  number  of 
the  city  schools.  The  men  are  selected  with  reference  to  academic 
training  and  ability  to  teach  certain  high  school  subjects,  since  the 
greater  part  of  their  time  is  devoted  to  teaching  in  the  high  schools, 
rather  than  to  professional  training  or  ability  to  plan  elementary 
work.    The  men  coming  directly  from  the  colleges  or  departmental 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       yy 

positions  in  the  high  schools  are  neither  familiar  with  elementary 
school  problems  or  with  the  educational  literature  giving  the  experi- 
ence of  other  schoolmen  and  specialists  in  dealing  with  these  prob- 
lems. As  these  men  advance  to  the  superintendency  of  schools  and 
other  inexperienced  men  take  their  places,  it  is  not  until  they  have 
become  superintendents  of  larger  schools  that  they  have  become 
familiar  enough  with  the  problems  of  the  grades  and  have  acquired 
sufficient  experience  in  dealing  with  them  to  be  competent  to  plan, 
unaided,  a  course  of  study  for  the  grades. 

The  state  course  of  study  for  high  schools  does  not  occupy  sq 
definite  and  fixed  a  position  in  the  schools  of  the  state  as  does  the 
course  of  study  for  the  elementary  schools.  This  is  true  for  two 
reasons.  The  effort  of  school  officials  was  first  directed  toward 
the  elementary  schools  and  secondly,  the  high  schools  of  the  state 
were  in  charge  of  men  who  were  more  able  to  plan  their  own  work. 
The  need  of  standardization,  college  entrance  requirements  and  the 
more  recent  changes  in  secondary  education  led  to  an  increased 
activity  on  the  part  of  the  state  officials.  The  state  course  of  study 
being  planned  for  the  greater  number  of  high  schools  would  natur- 
ally be  better  fitted  for  the  towns  and  smaller  city  high  schools  than 
for  consolidated  and  larger  city  high  schools.  It  was  found  that 
only  sixteen  per  cent  of  the  city  high  schools  and  seventy  per  cent  of 
the  consolidated  high  schools  used  the  state  course  of  study  without 
modifications  as  compared  with  eighty-four  per  cent  of  the  town 
high  schools.  The  changes  made  by  the  consolidated  schools  were 
usually  with  the  idea  of  making  possible  greater  specialization  in 
science  and  agriculture  and  in  the  larger  city  high  schools  in  order 
to  offer  a  greater  number  of  courses  from  which  the  pupil  might 
select.  These  city  high  schools  usually  offer  a  commercial  course, 
but  none  offered  an  industrial  course. 

A  comparative  study  of  the  time  and  place  given  the  newer  sub- 
jects in  the  different  types  of  schools  will  give  some  idea  of  the 
efforts  made  in  each  to  enrich  the  course  of  study.  This  was  done 
to  a  certain  extent  when  the  subject  of  special  teachers  was  consid- 
ered, but  to  get  a  definite  basis  for  comparison  that  is  fair  to  all 
types,  it  is  necessary  to  include  work  done  by  regular  as  well  as  by 
special  teachers.  Superintendents  and  principals  were  asked  if 
they  gave  regular  and  systematic  instruction  in  music,  drawing, 
etc.,  mentioning  all  the  newer  subjects.  In  all  subjects  to  which 
an  affirmative  answer  was  given  further  inquiry  was  made  as  to 
the  grade  in  which  the  work  was  given,  number  of  lessons  per  week 


»J  o 

Ho 
o 
w 


sapuiS 

m  ireouao 

o*-t 

uav^aiapui^ 

OCS 

1^ 

■7;^ 

CM^ 

apBJO 

C*5I>. 

.y  ft, 

II 

looqJS 

qsiH 

vOiOVO 

apwo 

t^^  00 

If 

looqas 
qSiH 

OOlOt^ 

apBiO 

OOt^O 

1 

lOoqDS 

q^iH 

vO  On  00 

apBio 

OnOsCOO 

1 

1 

'°® 

^OO 

ap^iO 

»0  0\  Ovt^ 

1 

looqos 

sp^iO 

lO  »0  On  CN 

i-H  T-i  es 

1 

S 

'°?i;i 

^^^ 

apBio 

2^?;;^ 

aonuiodjoD  JO 
laquma  p^ox 

CO'"-"  cs  cs 

Rural 

Consolidated 
Town 
City 

"  i 

W     g 
PQ 

I  " 
f-  8 

a 
o 

CO 

3 

w 
U 

p< 
w 

PU 


uBuuso 

U3?IBgj3pOT3 

o 

1 
.a 

looqDS 
q3iH 

vovo 

1—1 

ap^iO 

1'^ 

lOoqDS 

qsiH 

fopo 

CO  CN  O) 

ap^iO 

qsiH 

■^  CN  <M 

spwo 

qovq 

3 

1 

looqos 

qsjH 

oqo 

t-  vo  >0 

9PBI0 

Ovqp 

1 

looqos 

q^iH 

00 
lOOO 

ap^JO 

vq  p  p  ^^ 

\0  ro  vOO\ 

1 

looqos 
q^IH 

00«N00 

ap^JO 

vq  tN  p  vq 

1 

looqos 
q^IH 

<s  ro  O 

OO  00  o 

ap^JO 

foppp 

fOO  OOO 

[78] 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       79 

and  average  length  of  period  for  each.  It  was  found  in  most  cases, 
when  music  was  given  that  it  extended  through  the  grades  and  the 
high  school.  The  schools  were  about  equally  divided,  half  the 
number  devoting  only  one  period  per  week  to  the  subject  and  half 
the  schools  giving  two  periods  per  week  to  it  in  the  grades,  and 
one  period  per  week  in  practically  all  the  high  schools.  The  same 
could  be  said  of  drawing  except  in  the  towns,  especially  ixi  the  high 
schools.  Nature  study  was  given  in  the  lower  grades,  usually  the 
first  four,  and  correlated  with  the  work  in  home  geography.  Agri- 
culture, manual  training,  and  domestic  science  were  given  in  the 
first  year  of  high  school  and  sometimes  extending  through  the 
second  year.  When  given  in  the  high  school  these  subjects  were 
also  taught  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  These  subjects  are 
seldom  taught  in  the  grades  when  not  taught  in  the  high  school. 

So  much  is  being  said  and  written  about  industrial  education, 
agriculture,  manual  training,  domestic  science,  and  the  like,  that 
we  are  often  inclined  to  believe  that  these  newer  subjects  have 
definite  places  in  the  curricula  of  most  of  our  schools.  To  what 
extent  these  subjects  are  being  taught  in  the  different  types  of 
schools  of  Indiana  may  be  seen  by  referring  to  Table  xxix.  It  will 
be  observed  that  only  one- third  of  the  rural  schools  pretend  to  do 
any  systematic  work  in  music  and  only  one-sixth  do  any  work  in 
drawing.  Some  attention  is  given  to  nature  study  and  agriculture 
in  about  one-third  of  the  schools.  All  consolidated  schools  give 
regular  and  systematic  work  in  drawing  in  the  high  schools,  but 
in  only  eighty-eight  per  cent  of  the  grades.  Fifty  per  cent  of  the 
consolidated  schools  offer  nature  study  in  the  lower  grades  and 
agriculture  in  the  upper  grammar  grades  and  high  school,  forty- 
seven  per  cent  give  regular  work  in  manual  training  and  about  forty 
per  cent  offer  courses  in  domestic  science,  which  is  a  very  creditable 
showing,  as  compared  with  what  is  done  in  the  town  schools  in  these 
subjects,  where  only  about  thirty-five  per  cent  give  any  attention  to 
agriculture  and  twenty  per  cent  give  instruction  in  manual  training 
and  domestic  science.  The  city  schools  rank  second  to  the  consoli- 
dated schools  in  all  these  subjects  except  agriculture  in  the  high 
school.  The  work  in  agriculture  in  the  city  schools  is  more  of  a 
textbook  subject  and  taught  with  a  different  purpose  than  the 
agriculture  that  is  given  in  the  consolidated  schools.  While  quite 
a  number  of  the  larger  cities  included  in  this  study  are  industrial 
centers,  no  mention  is  made  of  industrial  courses  except  commercial 
work  in  the  curricula  of  any  of  the  high  schools. 


CHAPTER-  V 
Supervision 

A  comparison  of  the  supervision  in  the  different  types  of  schools 
must  take  the  form  of  a  survey  for  the  most  part  and  be  limited 
to  a  comparison  of  the  supervisory  forces,  nature  and  extent  of 
the  efforts  of  the  supervising  officials  to  give  constructive  super- 
vision of  the  regular  work  of  the  teachers,  provision  for  profes- 
sional improvement  of  teachers  in  service  and  special  attention 
given  to  the  physical  needs  of  the  children.  If  a  distinction  were 
made  between  inspection  and  supervision,  a  discussion  of  the  latter 
would  be  limited  to  something  less  than  fifty  per  cent  of  consolidated 
and  city  schools  and  ten  per  cent  of  town  schools. 

The  supervision  of  instruction  of  rural  schools  is  under  the 
direction  of  the  county  superintendents.  The  county  superinten- 
dent also  has  the  same  jurisdiction  over  consolidated  schools  which 
are  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  principal.  The  princi- 
pals of  town  schools  supervise  the  work  of  the  town  schools.  The 
supervisory  staff  of  the  city  schools  consists  of  a  superintendent, 
ward,  and  high  school  principals,  supervisors  of  special  subjects 
and  frequently  departmental  supervisors  such  as  a  supervisor  of 
primary  grades  and  a  supervisor  of  grammar  grades. 

Table  xxx  shows  that  there  is  little  possibility  of  real  super- 
vision in  the  rural  schools.    The  average  number  of  teachers  under 

TABLE  XXX 
Supervision  in  the  Different  Types  of  Schools 


Rural 

Consoli- 
dated 

Towni 

City 

Average  number  of  teachers  under 

each   superintendent 

103 

6 

.  . 

34 

Average  nurnber  of  teachers  under 

each  principal   

8 

8 

6 

Average    number    of    teachers    for 

each  special  teacher  or  supervisor 

.. 

6.4 

10.8 

12.2 

Average  number  of  visits  per  year 

to  each  room  by  superintendents 

1.8 

2.5 

45 

Average  number  of  visits  per  year 

to  each  room  by  principals  

5.6 

48 

. . 

Average  length  in  minutes  of  visits 

by  superintendents  

8S 

60 

24 

Average  length  in  minutes  of  visits 

'-'%} 

by  principals    

12 

23 

Average  amount  of  time  in  minutes 

spent  by  superintendents  and  prin- 

cipals with  each  teacher  per  week 

6.4 

28 

27 

29 

A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       8i 

each  county  superintendent  is  one  hundred  three.  The  average 
number  of  visits  made  by  county  superintendents  to  each  teacher 
in  the  township  district  schools  was  one  and  eight-tenths  and  the 
average  length  of  each  visit  was  eighty-five  minutes.  When  we 
take  into  consideration  the  fact  that  practically  all  the  schools  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  county  superintendent  are  one-room  schools 
located  about  three  miles  apart,  that  much  of  his  time  is  taken  up 
with  clerical  duties  and  the  grading  of  manuscripts  for  the  certifi- 
cation of  teachers,  we  can  readily  understand  why  little  more  than 
a  hasty  inspection  of  the  schools  in  the  county  is  possible  even 
where  the  county  superintendent  is  fitted  by  training  and  experience 
to  do  effective  supervision.  Many  county  superintendents  make  it 
a  point  to  inspect  the  work  of  beginning  teachers  more  frequently 
than  they  do  the  work  of  experienced  teachers.  It  sometimes  hap- 
pens that  a  teacher  has  difficulty  in  arranging  her  work  or  meeting 
other  problems  of  the  school,  in  which  case  the  county  superinten- 
dent will  make  a  number  of  visits  and  spend  considerable  time  in 
getting  matters  adjusted.  Such  cases  are  rare  and  usually  reach  a 
critical  stage  before  the  superintendent  knows  about  them  and  aids 
the  teachers  in  solving  the  difficulties.  In  the  report  of  county 
superintendents  to  the  state  superintendent  very  few  mention 
anything  that  would  indicate  that  any  systematic  effort  is  made  to 
improve  the  work  of  the  teachers.  Administrative  problems,  such 
as  sanitary  conditions,  consolidation  of  schools,  introduction  of 
agriculture  were  discussed,  but  no  consideration  given  to  internal 
work  of  the  schools.  Further  evidence  of  lack  of  any  constructive 
supervision  on  the  part  of  most  county  superintendents  is  seen  in 
the  answers  given  when  asked  to  state  in  order  of  importance,  the 
purposes  in  mind  in  visiting  the  schools.  The  three  things  men- 
tioned most  frequently  were :  a — legal  requirement,  that  is,  a  super- 
intendent must  visit  all  teachers  once  during  the  year  in  order  to 
be  able  to  give  each  teacher  a  success  grade  for  the  year ;  b — to  see 
that  teachers  are  following  the  state  course  of  study,  another  legal 
requirement;  and  c — general  inspection.  One  out  of  every  eleven 
county  superintendents  gave  an  answer  that  would  indicate  an  effort 
to  do  constructive  work  such  as  improvement  of  primary  methods, 
reading,  use  of  supplementary  books,  emphasis  on  importance  of 
phonics  and  systematic  work  in  spelling,  encouragement  of  more 
systematic  work  in  agriculture,  and  the  like.  When  we  consider 
the  number  of  visits  and  amount  of  time  spent  at  each  school,  we 
know  that  such  efforts  are  not  far-reaching. 


82       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

The  work  of  the  consolidated  schools  is  much  more  carefully 
supervised.  These  schools,  where  found,  are  given  considerable 
attention  by  friends  and  foes  alike  so  that  the  men  who  are  respon- 
sible for  them  put  forth  a  great  effort  to  place  the  work  on  as  high  a 
plane  as  possible.  The  county  superintendent  visits  these  schools 
more  frequently  than  he  does  the  township  district  schools  and  the 
principal  is  selected  with  reference  to  his  ability  to  supervise  more 
than  is  the  principal  of  a  town  school.  In  addition  to  the  inspec- 
tions made  by  the  county  superintendent,  the  principals  of  the 
consolidated  schools  average  fifty-six  visits  to  each  teacher  dur- 
ing the  year,  spending  on  an  average  twelve  minutes  in  each  room. 
The  county  superintendent  and  principal  cooperate  in  their  en- 
deavor to  make  the  work  of  the  school  equal  to  that  found  in  any 
school  of  the  state  by  perfecting  the  organization,  securing  neces- 
sary materials  and  equipment,  but  not  giving  a  great  deal  of  atten- 
tion to  the  improvement  of  instruction.  One  is  impressed  by  the 
fact  that  too  much  consideration  is  given  to  what  is  being  done  in 
the  city  schools  and  not  enough  to  the  local  situation.  The  special 
teachers  devote  very  little  time  to  supervision  as  they  do  practically 
all  the  work  in  the  different  grades  in  their  special  subjects.  The 
answers  given  by  county  superintendents  to  the  question  concern- 
ing the  purpose  of  visitations  showed  that  the  legal  aspect  was  of 
secondary  importance  and  that  educational  problems  were  appre- 
ciated to  a  certain  extent  and  given  consideration. 

The  work  of  the  town  schools  is  the  most  poorly  supervised 
of  any  type  considered,  except  the  rural  schools.  The  principals 
have  had  little  training  or  experience  in  supervising  grade  work 
and  are  usually  required  to  devote  the  larger  part  of  their  time  to 
classroom  instruction.  These  schools  are  frequently  handicapped 
by  lack  of  adequate  material  and  equipment.  The  stimulus  for 
doing  the  best  work  possible,  given  consolidated  schools  on  account 
of  being  a  newer  movement  and  thus  under  more  or  less  critical 
observation  of  patrons  and  schoolmen,  is  also  lacking.  These 
schools  are  deprived,  through  practice  rather  than  by  legislation, 
of  the  stimulus  and  suggestions  of  the  county  superintendent  since 
towns  are  permitted  to  withdraw  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  county 
superintendent,  the  same  as  city  schools.  Notwithstanding  these 
limitations,  the  showing  made  by  the  principals  of  town  schools 
who  average  forty-eight  visits  of  twenty-three  minutes  each  to  each 
teacher  compares  favorably  with  the  eiforts  of  the  superintendents 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       83 

of  city  schools  and  principals  of  consolidated  schools.  The  answers 
to  the  question  as  to  the  purpose  of  visitation  indicate  that  the  work 
of  most  of  the  principals  is  inspectorial  rather  than  supervisory. 
Sixteen  per  cent  of  the  principals  seemed  to  be  doing  what  might 
be  called  constructive  supervision. 

The  supervisory  force  and  conditions  in  most  of  the  city  schools 
are  such  that  effective  work  can  be  done.  The  nature  and  extent 
of  such  work  depends  more  on  the  initiative  and  progressiveness 
of  the  city  superintendent  than  on  external  factors.  While  no  data 
are  at  hand  to  indicate  the  extent  of  the  work  of  the  ward  principals, 
it  is  safe  to  assume  that  their  work  is  in  a  way  comparable  to  what 
is  done  by  the  principals  of  the  town  schools.  In  addition  to  the 
work  of  these  principals  we  find  that  the  city  superintendents  aver- 
age forty-five  visits  of  twenty-four  minutes  each  to  each  teacher. 
The  answers  of  forty-five  per  cent  of  the  superintendents  to  ques- 
tions concerning  the  purpose  of  visitation  indicated  that  they  were 
at  work  on  definite  problems  which  they  mentioned  without  hesi- 
tation, while  the  answers  of  the  remaining  fifty-five  per  cent  showed 
their  work  to  be  general  inspection. 

Professional  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

One  of  the  essentials  in  a  progressive  school  system  is  to  provide 
some  means  of  stimulating  the  professional  spirit  among  beginning 
teachers  and  to  keep  this  spirit  alive  and  encourage  experienced 
teachers  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  progress  made  in  the  various 
fields  of  education,  in  order  that  they  may  not  become  narrow 
and  their  work  become  mechanical.  The  regular  educational 
organizations  open  to  all  teachers,  which  are  intended  to  meet 
these  needs,  are  **The  State  Teachers'  Association"  held  during 
the  Christmas  vacation,  the  two  sectional  associations  held  during 
the  spring  vacation,  county  institutes  held  at  the  county  seats  during 
August  and  the  first  week  of  September  and  a  "County  Teachers* 
Association"  usually  held  during  the  Thanksgiving  vacation.  There 
is  also  a  "State  Superintendents'  and  Principals'  Association"  that 
holds  annual  meetings  during  the  month  of  March.  The  state  and 
sectional  associations  are  conducted  on  the  plan  of  all  larger  organi- 
zations of  teachers.  There  are  general  meetings  attended  by  all, 
followed  by  sectional  meetings  at  which  problems  pertaining  to  the 
work  of  the  teachers  of  that  particular  group  are  discussed.  While 
any  teacher  in  the  state  is  eligible  to  membership,  the  superinten- 


84       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

dents  and  principals  of  the  various  schools  and  teachers  of  the  city 
schools  attend  in  greater  number  than  do  the  teachers  in  town  and 
rural  schools. 

The  county  institute  conducted  by  the  county  superintendent 
continues  in  session  five  days  with  morning  and  afternoon  sessions. 
Attendance  on  the  part  of  teachers  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
township  trustees  and  county  superintendent  is  in  a  way  compul- 
sory. Regular  attendance  means  an  addition  of  two  per  cent  to 
general  average  which  in  turn  means  an  increase  in  daily  salary 
for  the  following  year,  provided  the  teacher  is  paid  the  minimum 
amount  called  for  by  her  certificate  as  provided  by  law.  This  in- 
crease in  salary  amounts  to  about  what  the  teacher  would  receive 
for  one  week  of  regular  school  work.  Failure  to  attend  not  only 
means  the  forfeiture  of  this  additional  salary  but  also  a  lowering 
of  success  grade  which  in  turn  means  a  decrease  in  salary  for  the 
succeeding  year.  The  additional  two  per  cent  is  granted  to  town 
and  city  teachers  but  as  many  of  them  receive  little  more  than  the 
minimum  salary  or  are  teaching  on  a  normal  school  diploma  or 
exemption  license,  attendance  does  not  mean  any  increase  in  salary 
for  them  the  following  school  year.  Failure  to  attend,  on  the  other 
hand,  does  not  mean  lowering  of  success  grade  and  reduction  of 
salary  as  the  city  superintendents  who  make  out  the  success  grades 
of  city  teachers  do  not,  as  a  rule,  give  as  much  importance  to  the 
county  institute  as  do  the  county  superintendents.  While  there  is 
this  lack  of  compulsion  on  the  part  of  city  teachers,  they  do  attend 
quite  regularly.  The  work  is  usually  given  by  two  or  three  special 
instructors,  one  devoting  his  time  to  psychology  and  methods,  one 
to  a  discussion  of  importance,  purpose,  and  methods  of  teaching 
some  subject,  such  as  history,  and  the  third  giving  work  along  some 
special  line  such  as  music  or  agriculture.  The  work  of  the  whole 
institute  is  planned  for  the  most  part  with  reference  to  the  needs 
of  rural  teachers,  since  the  attendance  is  made  up  more  largely  of 
teachers  from  district  schools  and  the  county  superintendent  has 
greater  interest  in  them.  In  some  counties  the  afternoon  program 
consists  of  sectional  programs  which  make  it  possible  to  arrange 
the  work  to  meet  the  interests  and  needs  of  the  different  groups 
of  teachers. 

The  County  Teachers'  Association  is  a  voluntary  organization 
of  the  teachers  of  the  county  and  is  controlled  and  managed  by  the 
teachers  themselves.     The  school  officials  in  many  counties  have 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       85 

encouraged  this  organization  by  permitting  teachers  to  draw  regular 
salary  for  Thanksgiving  Day  and  the  Friday  following,  provided 
they  attend  the  two-day  sessions  of  the  association  regularly,  that 
is  held  on  Friday  and  Saturday  following  Thanksgiving  Day. 

Thus  far  we  have  been  speaking  of  organized  activities  in  which 
teachers  of  all  types  of  school  join  on  a  common  basis.  When  we 
come  to  consider  the  professional  work  of  teachers  in  service  in 
the  different  types,  considerable  variation  is  found.  The  teachers 
in  township  district  and  consolidated  schools  must  meet  in  institute 
one  Saturday  each  month  for  which  they  receive  the  same  salary 
as  for  one  day  of  teaching.  Failure  to  attend  without  a  good  excuse 
causes  the  teacher  to  forfeit  not  only  the  salary  for  the  day,  but 
also  an  additional  day's  salary  or  an  additional  day  of  regular 
teaching  may  be  substituted.  This  provision  is  not  always  vigor- 
ously enforced.  The  work  of  the  township  institute  is  planned  by 
the  state  department  and  is  based  for  the  most  part  on  the  State 
Teachers'  Reading  Circle  books,  adopted  by  the  state  board  of 
education,  with  an  additional  line  of  study  more  or  less  closely 
related  to  the  work  of  the  elementary  schools  and  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  county  superintendent  or  someone  appointed  by  him. 
Each  teacher,  in  addition  to  preparing  all  the  work  for  the  day  has 
some  definite  work  to  do.  The  reports  given  by  the  teachers  and 
the  discussions  that  follow  are  of  great  value  in  getting  teachers 
to  think  about  the  problems  and  movements  in  their  profession. 
While  no  definite  provision  is  made  for  the  discussion  of  the  prob- 
lems of  the  individual  teacher  that  arise  in  the  schoolroom,  they 
are  often  presented  and  discussed  so  that  the  teacher  concerned  has 
the  benefit  of  the  experience  of  other  teachers  in  solving  her  difficul- 
ties. The  interest  and  value  of  the  work  of  the  institute  depend 
to  a  great  extent  on  the  initiative  and  leadership  of  the  one  in 
charge. 

The  town  and  city  school  teachers  have  no  all-day  meetings  for 
professional  study  comparable  to  the  township  institute  for  rural 
and  consolidated  school  teachers.  The  teachers  of  a  few  of  the 
towns  attend  and  take  part  in  the  institutes  when  held  in  their  own 
town,  but  the  lack  of  pay  for  attendance  as  well  as  penalty  for 
non-attendance  causes  them  to  be  irregular  and  to  feel  less  responsi- 
bility for  the  work.  The  town  schools,  however,  have  their  own 
teachers'  meetings  varying  in  number  from  three  during  the  year 
to  one  each  week,  and  in  length  from  twenty  minutes  to  two  and 


86       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

one-half  hours.  The  average  number  of  meetings  of  the  teachers 
of  the  towns  was  sixteen  or  about  one  in  every  two  weeks.  The 
average  length  of  these  meetings  was  one  hour  and  five  minutes. 
It  was  found  that  the  whole  time  of  these  meetings  in  twenty 
per  cent  of  the  towns  was  devoted  to  discussion  of  the  routine  work 
of  the  school,  forty-four  per  cent  divided  the  time,  devoting  about 
one-third  of  the  time  to  consideration  of  local  affairs  and  two-thirds 
to  study  and  discussion  of  professional  work,  and  twenty-eight 
per  cent  gave  entire  time  to  professional  study.  When  this  showing 
is  compared  with  what  the  township  district  and  consolidated  school 
teachers  are  doing,  we  see  that  one- fourth  of  the  town  teachers 
spend  only  as  much  as  one-third  the  time  in  meetings  for  profes- 
sional improvement  as  the  former,  forty- four  per  cent  spend  about 
one- fourth  the  time  while  twenty-seven  per  cent  spend  no  time  at 
all  in  work  that  would  stimulate  interest  and  develop  a  professional 
attitude. 

Cities  vary  greatly  and  to  a  certain  extent  according  to  size, 
in  provisions  made  for  professional  advancement  of  teachers  in 
service.  A  few  cities  in  which  only  short  monthly  business  meetings 
were  held  offer  no  better  advantages  than  did  the  poorest  group 
of  town  schools.  Other  cities  were  found  in  which  regular  bi- 
weekly meetings  were  held.  Alternate  meetings  were  addressed  by 
specialists  in  the  various  fields  of  education  and  the  programs  of 
the  other  meetings  consisted  of  talks  by  the  superintendents  and 
papers  read  by  teachers,  followed  by  general  discussions.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  meetings  regular  grade  meetings  were  held  at  which 
the  problems  and  plan  of  work  for  the  particular  grade  were  pre- 
sented and  discussed  and  the  supervisors  of  the  special  lines  of 
work  gave  plans  and  instructions  for  carrying  on  the  work  in  their 
particular  subjects.  The  average  number  of  general  meetings  for 
the  teachers  in  city  schools  for  the  year  was  twenty-one  with  an 
average  length  of  session  of  one  hour  and  five  minutes  each. 
Twelve  per  cent  of  the  schools  devoted  the  entire  time  to  announce- 
ments and  routine  work  of  the  school,  twenty-one  per  cent  divided 
the  time,  giving  a  short  period  for  routine  work  followed  by  longer 
period  given  to  a  ccmsideration  of  the  larger  problems  of  education 
and  sixty-six  per  cent  spent  the  entire  time  in  professional  work  of 
some  sort.  The  superintendents  of  schools  in  which  no  time  of 
the  general  meetings  was  given  to  routine  work  of  the  school,  attend 
to  such  matters  themselves  by  keeping  in  touch  with  the  teachers  by 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       87 

means  of  mimeographed  announcements  and  instructions,  reports 
received  from  teachers  from  time  to  time  and  conferences  with  the 
teachers  most  vitally  concerned  in  any  particular  problem  of  the 
school.  The  professional  study  of  the  city  teachers  is  neither  so 
systematic  nor  does  it  require  so  much  study  on  their  part  as  that 
done  by  the  rural  and  consolidated  school  teachers,  but  on  account 
of  community  of  interests  and  initiative  and  ability  of  those  in 
charge,  the  results  are  more  satisfactory  and  far-reaching. 

Medical  Inspection 

The  introduction  of  medical  inspection  into  the  schools  of 
Indiana  followed  the  same  course  that  many  of  the  progressive 
movements  in  education  have  taken.  Some  steps  were  taken  in 
this  work  at  first  by  a  few  of  the  more  progressive  schools  of  the 
state,  enlarging  the  functions  of  the  local  board  of  health  and 
utilizing  the  proffered  services  of  some  of  the  local  professional 
men,  followed  by  mandatory  legislation  for  the  larger  cities  and 
permissive  legislation  for  other  school  corporations.  At  the  present 
time  permissive  legislation  only,  obtains  for  all  school  corporations 
except  Indianapolis,  the  one  city  of  the  state  with  a  population  of 
more  than  one  hundred  thousand.  In  1909  a  law  was  enacted 
requiring  the  board  of  health  and  charities  of  cities  having  a  popu- 
lation of  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  to  make  medical  inspec- 
tion from  time  to  time  of  all  persons  attending,  or  employed  in  or 
about,  all  public,  private  or  parochial  schools  in  such  city.  The  law 
authorized  the  board  to  prescribe  rules  and  regulations  concerning 
the  number  and  character  of  inspections,  prohibit  the  presence  of 
anyone  whose  health  is. such  that  his  presence  will  be  injurious 
to  himself  or  others  and  appoint  competent  physicians  and  district 
nurses  with  visitorial  power.  The  law  further  provides  that  the 
city  council  shall  levy  a  tax  of  one-half  cent  on  each  one  hundred 
dollars  to  carry  on  this  work. 

The  permissive  legislation  enacted  in  191 1  provides  "That  school 
trustees  and  township  trustees  are  permitted  and  recommended  to 
institute  medical  inspection  of  school  children  at  any  time,  the  said 
trustees  may  require  teachers  to  annually  test  the  sight  and  hearing 
of  all  school  children  under  their  charge,  the  said  tests  and  uses 
thereof  to  be  made  according  to  rules  hereafter  authorized.**  Medi- 
cal inspection  is  defined  as  including  the  testing  of  sight  and  hearing 
of  school  children  and  the  "inspection  of  said  children  by  school 


88       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

physicians  for  diseases,  disabilities,  decayed  teeth  and  other  defects 
which  may  reduce  efficiency  or  tend  to  prevent  their  receiving  the 
full  benefits  of  school  work/'  The  law  provides  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  one  school  physician  for  each  school  corporation;  or  two 
or  more  corporations  may  unite  and  employ  one  physician,  but  he 
must  not  have  more  than  two  thousand  children  under  his  charge. 
The  man  appointed  must  be  a  licensed  physician,  be  informed  and 
skilled  in  medical  inspection  of  children,  informed  in  the  health  laws 
and  health  rules  of  the  state  board  of  health,  shall  be  temperate, 
able-bodied,  cleanly  in  person,  not  addicted  to  drugs  and  be  of  good 
moral  character.  The  compensation  of  the  school  physician  is  de- 
termined by  the  appointing  trustee  or  trustees.  The  duties  of  a  school 
physician,  when  appointed,  are  set  forth  in  detail  and  are  man- 
datory so  that  no  one  is  exempt  from  the  examination  by  him  except 
on  a  certified  statement  of  a  reputable  physician  that  he  has  made 
a  thorough  examination  of  the  child  and  notified  the  parents  of  the 
results  of  such  examination.  The  state  board  of  health  and  state 
board  of  education  are  authorized  to  jointly  formulate  rules  and 
regulations  for  the  detailed  enforcement  of  the  provisions  of 
this   law. 

The  medical  authorities  who  exercised  control  over  the  school 
before  the  enactment  of  the  law  for  medical  inspection  and  at  the 
present  time  in  school  corporations  where  no  school  physician  has 
been  appointed,  is  the  board  of  health.  This  board  exercises  juris- 
diction over  schools  only  when  such  action  is  necessary  to  prevent 
the  spread  of  disease  and  to  see  that  school  buildings  have  been 
properly  fumigated  after  having  been  occupied  by  children  with 
contagious  diseases.  The  law  providing  for  the  appointment  of 
school  physicians  had  been  on  the  statutes  only  a  short  time  when 
the  data  for  this  investigation  were  collected,  though  a  number  of 
schools  had  some  form  of  medical  inspection  prior  to  its  enactment. 
No  evidence  was  found  indicating  that  the  schools  of  rural  districts 
and  towns  intended  to  introduce  medical  inspection.  Eleven  per 
cent  of  the  consolidated  schools  and  twenty-one  per  cent  of  the  city 
schools  have  some  form  of  medical  inspection,  which  may  be  classi- 
fied into  three  almost  equal  groups.  The  first  being  composed  of 
the  schools  in  which  the  tests  are  made  by  the  teachers,  the  second 
is  made  up  of  schools  in  which  the  teachers  make  certain  tests  of 
all  the  children  and  a  physician  examines  cases  referred  to  him  by 
teachers    or,    as    sometimes    happens,    physicians    volunteer    their 


'       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       89 


services  and  examine  all  children  of  the  school.  The  third  group 
is  composed  of  the  schools  in  which  there  is  a  regularly  appointed 
school  physician  who  performs  the  duties  prescribed  for  him  by 
law.  In  the  schools  composing  this  group,  the  school  physician 
examined  all  children  at  the  beginning  of  the  school  year  and  re- 
ported to  parents  any  defects  discovered.  He  made  further  exami- 
nations of  all  children  sent  to  him  by  the  teachers  and  principals 
from  time  to  time  and  kept  a  record  of  all  examinations  made  and 
reports  sent  to  parents.  A  few  schools  reported  dental  inspection 
apart  from  the  regular  medical  inspection  but  such  cases  were 
where  dentists  volunteered  their  services  and  the  work  was  not 
followed  up  or  sufficiently  systematic  to  be  very  effective. 

While  this  movement  for  the  preservation  of  the  health  of  chil- 
dren is  just  beginning  there  is  not  sufficient  data  available  for  relia- 
ble inferences,  yet  there  is  enough  to  indicate  that  the  consolidated 
and  city  schools  are  more  responsive  to  the  movement  for  genuine 
medical  inspection. 

School  and  Community  Activities 
Since  the  question  of  making  a  wider  use  of  the  school  plant 
and  extending  the  socializing  influence  of  the  school  is  receiving 
so  much  attention  in  educational  discussions,  an  effort  was  made 
to  learn  of  all  the  work  of  the  schools  included  in  this  study  along 
these  lines.  The  results  obtained  were  rather  meagre  and  justify 
only  one  conclusion,  namely,  the  school  organized  as  a  social  center 
is  exceptional  and  is  characteritsic  of  no  particular  type  of  schools. 
The  results  obtained  are  given  in  Table  xxxi  which,  taking  the 
city  schools  as  an  example,  are  to  be  read  as  follows:    Out  of  the 

TABLE  XXXI 

School  and  Community  Activities 


Number  of  organi- 
zation 

Number  of 

meetings  per 

month 

Per  cent  of  pupils 
taking  part 

Patrons*  meetings  per 
year 

s 

1 

I 

I 

I 

S« 

"H 

c 

0 

Si!  V 

? 

u 

n 

•0 

-t^ 

m 

1^ 

% 

0 

I 

b 

« 

eS 

^ 

h 

^ 

hI 

h 

^ 

£ 

;2s 

±i 

^^ 

JCS 

^ 

0 

^ 

H 

&t 

Township 

30 

30 

27 

2 

1 

Consolidated 

17 

13 

3 

1 

4 

1 

2 

1 

1 

11 

2 

2 

1 

1 

Town 

25 

12 

10 

2 

6 

4 

1 

3 

2 

2 

2 

1 

21 

2 

1 

1 

City 

24 

10 

4 

6 

4 

13 

10 

2 

8 

3 

1 

2 

14 

3 

3 

1 

3 

90       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

twenty-four  cities  investigated,  ten  had  no  student  activities  at  all 
in  the  high  school;  four  had  one  student  organization  each;  six 
had  two ;  four  had  three  or  more  such  organizations.  Of  the  total 
number  of  organizations  found,  thirteen  held  one  meeting  each; 
ten  held  two  meetings ;  and  two,  four  meetings  per  month.  Eight 
of  the  high  schools  having  such  student  activities  enrolled  fifteen 
per  cent  or  less  of  the  students  in  attendance;  three  enrolled 
sixteen  to  twenty-five  per  cent;  one,  twenty-five  to  fifty  per 
cent;  and  two,  fifty  to  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  student  body. 
Fourteen  of  the  twenty-four  cities  held  no  patron  meetings ;  three 
held  one ;  three  held  two ;  one  held  four ;  and  three  held  six  during 
the  year. 

A  percentile  table  is  unnecessary  to  show  that  there  is  little 
constructive  work  along  these  lines  to  be  found  anywhere.  While 
the  township  district  schools  report  no  student  organizations  as 
such,  we  know  that  quite  a  number  give  special  programs  and  the 
like  on  Friday  afternoons,  which,  in  a  way,  is  comparable  to  the 
more  definitely  organized  activities  in  the  high  schools  of  the  other 
types  of  schools  studied.  Neither  do  we  find  any  definite  effort, 
with  three  exceptions,  to  arouse  greater  interest  in  the  schools 
among  the  patrons.  It  is  quite  a  general  practice,  however,  for 
each  school  to  give  some  entertainment  or  hold  some  kind  of  a 
social  to  which  the  young  people  of  the  community  and  the  patrons 
are  invited.  The  purpose  of  this  is  usually  to  raise  money 
for  the  school  library.  In  one  case  a  teacher  made  an  exhibit  of 
the  work  of  the  pupils  and  invited  the  patrons  to  spend  an  afternoon 
in  observing  the  work  of  the  school.  This  work  is  in  a  way  com- 
parable to  what  is  found  in  more  definitely  organized  form  in 
consolidated  schools.  The  predominating  type  of  organizations 
among  consolidated  schools  is  the  debating  society  and  agricultural 
club.  The  meetings  to  which  the  patrons  are  invited  also  take  the 
form  of  exhibition  of  the  work  in  manual  training  and  in  agricul- 
ture, such  as  a  corn  show  or  stock  judging  contest,  and  the  like. 

Among  the  town  and  city  schools  the  predominating  type  of 
student  activities  outside  of  some  form  of  athletic  organization 
which  is  more  or  less  common,  is  the  debating  society,  which  is 
greatly  stimulated  by  the  triangular  debates  held  among  schools  of 
each  vicinity.  This  form  of  organization,  however,  is  not  found  in 
more  than  fifty  per  cent  of  the  schools.  The  majority  of  the  patrons' 
meetings,  which  are  by  no  means  common  among  the  schools,  take 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       91 

the  form  of  an  exhibit  at  which  is  displayed  the  work  of  the  various 
departments.  It  is  no  unusual  occurrence  for  the  superintendent 
or  principal  and  teachers  to  invite  visiting  patrons  to  contribute 
to  the  school  library,  either  by  donating  books  or  money  which  may 
be  used  for  the  purchase  of  books  or  to  aid  the  school  in  some  other 
kind  of  movement  which  the  school  has  under  consideration.  It  is 
needless  to  add  that  this  does  not  encourage  attendance. 

One  town  school  and  one  city  school  were  found  that  were,  ex- 
ceptional in  both  student  and  community  activities.  Each  had  work 
that  was  definitely  planned  and  carried  out.  The  student  activities 
were  so  organized  as  to  include  the  majority  of  all  the  high  school 
pupils,  were  under  the  control  of  the  students  themselves  and  pro- 
vided for  the  social  as  well  as  intellectual  needs  of  the  pupils  taking 
part.  The  superintendents  of  these  two  schools  had  been  able  to 
arouse  the  interest  of  the  patrons  in  the  work  of  the  school  and  to 
extend  its  influence  in  the  various  social  functions  of  the  commu- 
nity. There  were  special  clubs  for  both  men  and  women,  social 
activities  for  the  young  people  of  the  community,  and  a  committee 
of  business  men  to  cooperate  with  the  principal  and  superintendent 
in  giving  some  vocational  guidance  to  the  boy  of  the  community. 
The  local  lecture  course  was  organized  and  maintained  by  the 
school.  The  result  of  all  this  work  was  that  these  schools  were 
looked  to  for  leadership  and  promulgation  of  all  community 
activities. 


CHAPTER  VI 

School  Statistics 

One  of  the  biggest  problems  the  boards  of  education  in  the 
larger  centers  of  population  frequently  have  to  face  is  to  provide 
school  facilities  for  an  increasing  and  oftentimes,  a  shifting  popu- 
lation within  their  jurisdiction.  The  opposite  situation  often  con- 
fronts officials  of  rural  schools  where,  in  all  older  communities, 
there  is  a  migration  from  the  country  to  towns  and  cities.  With 
the  former  it  is  a  problem  of  providing  additional  and  oftentimes 
temporary  school  buildings,  equipment,  etc.,  while  with  the  latter 
it  is  a  problem  of  closing  some  schools  that  at  one  time  were  well 
attended,  consolidating  adjoining  districts,  providing  for  trans- 
portation of  pupils  in  opposition  to  community  pride  and  local 
prejudices. 

The  change  in  population  in  the  different  corporations  during 
the  past  ten  years  will  reveal  the  nature  and  significance  of  this 
problem  in  the  different  types  of  schools.  The  statistics  with  refer- 
ence to  this  point  are  given  in  the  tables  which  follow.  These  tables 
also  give  data  for  determining  the  ratio  of  school  census  to  total 
population,  the  efficiency  of  the  different  types  of  schools  in  retain- 
ing the  pupils  enrolled,  the  average  number  in  daily  attendance, 
the  number  completing  the  grades  and  the  high  school  and  the 
length  of  school  year  in  days. 

In  order  to  determine  the  number  of  children  of  legal  school 
age  in  any  school  corporation  enrolled  in  school,  it  was  necessary 
to  make  corrections  for  the  transfers  from  one  school  corporation 
to  another.  These  corrections  were  made  by  determining  the  differ- 
ence between  the  amount  of  money  paid  out  by  each  corporation 
for  transfers  and  the  amount  received  for  the  same  purpose  and 
dividing  the  difference  in  the  case  of  township  district  schools,  by 
two  multiplied  by  the  number  of  months  the  schools  were  in  session 
and  adding  this  quotient  to  or  subtracting  from  the  number  of 
pupils  enrolled  in  the  schools  of  that  corporation.  If  a  greater 
amount  was  paid  out  than  received  for  transfers,  the  number  was 
added  to  the  enrollment  of  the  schools  of  that  corporation,  if  the 
reverse,  the  number  was  subtracted.  Two  is  taken  as  the  divisor 
because  two  dollars  per  month  is  the  maximum  amount  allowed  by 
law  for  tuition  of  grade  pupils  of  one  corporation  enrolled  in  the 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       93 


TABLE  XXXII 
Population  and  School  Statistics  of  Townships  with  District  Schools 


■s 

1 

ji 

11 

il 

.3 

a 

a 
^  1 

S8 

1 

X) 

w 

j 
Is 

1 

II 

1 

1 

790 

850 

210 

180 

158 

126 

11 

140 

2 

2410 

2657 

834 

519 

519 

488 

32 

135 

3 

873 

1049 

301 

200 

197 

166 

120 

4 

1687 

1895 

475 

399 

297 

207 

17 

115 

5 

775 

728 

276 

173 

148 

124 

14 

112 

6 

3335 

3686 

901 

684 

678 

475 

25 

120 

7 

889 

875 

228 

198 

185 

126 

4 

140 

8 

1670 

1794 

453 

223 

222 

177 

5 

140 

9 

824 

812 

255 

179 

164 

129 

7 

140 

10 

1782 

2106 

558 

490 

430 

341 

20 

140 

11 

1137 

1197 

406 

312 

159 

126 

1 

120 

12 

1185 

1165 

374 

277 

195 

164 

12 

120 

13 

1165 

1286 

322 

261 

239 

184 

19 

150 

14 

522 

541 

155 

130 

112 

73 

4 

140 

15 

536 

531 

147 

102 

96 

76 

4 

140 

16 

1505 

1541 

397 

259 

239 

191 

21 

130 

17 

959 

1052 

274 

214 

244 

207 

12 

160 

18 

1000 

827 

274 

220 

212 

150 

120 

19 

717 

579 

255 

136 

145 

99 

13 

180 

20 

1483 

1708 

409 

154 

154 

110 

15 

140 

21 

1053 

1265 

302 

263 

251 

210 

18 

130 

22 

1897 

1842 

608 

377 

346 

255 

12 

140 

23 

2671 

2859 

759 

683 

543 

413 

21 

160 

24 

1114 

1116 

305 

218 

210 

151 

25 

659 

706 

182 

151 

138 

117 

4x 

140 

26 

2413 

2643 

723 

625 

450 

372 

17 

140 

27 

1519 

1900 

426 

380 

305 

209 

15 

160 

28 

2727 

2991 

789 

605 

435 

342 

23 

140 

29 

1222 

1479 

354 

287 

279 

198 

3 

140 

30 

774 

811 

192 

172 

158 

108 

10 

160 

schools  of  another.  In  case  of  consolidated,  town,  and  city  school 
corporations,  three  multiplied  by  the  number  of  months  the  schools 
were  in  session  was  taken  as  the  divisor,  as  it  is  the  average  of  the 
maximum  amount  allowed  by  law  for  grade  and  high  school  pupils. 
This  somewhat  arbitrary  method  of  correction  was  necessary,  since 
there  was  no  means  of  determining  what  per  cent  of  transfers  were 
grade  pupils  and  what  per  cent  were  high  school  pupils,  neither  were 


94       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 


TABLE  XXXIII 
Population  and  School  Statistics  of  Townships  with  Consolidated  Schools 


il 

11 

i 

11 

as 

II 

1 

11 

ill 

PI 

1 

ill 

HI 

Is 

% 
^1 

1 

1146 

1160 

298 

268 

213 

180 

15 

140 

2 

641 

641 

169 

129 

124 

102 

5 

160 

3 

1738 

1643 

436 

452 

300 

27 

8 

160 

4 

1070 

1119 

285 

251 

239 

202 

18 

120 

5 

1131 

1173 

298 

196 

243 

183 

16 

8 

160 

6 

1904 

1869 

450 

'     387 

388 

329 

24 

11 

160 

7 

1594 

1550 

409 

417 

292 

22 

13 

155 

8 

1428 

1591 

392 

317 

347 

321 

23 

15 

160 

9 

888 

1031 

217 

182 

174 

153 

6 

5 

140 

10 

2234 

2564 

536 

467 

469 

412 

23 

12 

160 

11 

776 

842 

179 

152 

166 

162 

5 

5 

170 

12 

652 

657 

171 

142 

154 

118 

6 

160 

13 

873 

973 

213 

186 

190 

145 

10 

5 

160 

14 

691 

684 

160 

145 

157 

134 

9 

140 

15 

525 

561 

129 

82 

87 

74 

10 

4 

140 

16 

613 

736 

178 

137 

137 

118 

6 

170 

17 

985 

1095 

262 

187 

189 

154 

there  any  data  as  to  the  exact  amount  of  tuition  charged  per  pupil 
by  each  school  corporation.  The  results  of  this  method  of  correc- 
tion are  found  in  the  columns  with  the  headings,  "Number  of  chil- 
dren of  corporation  enrolled  in  school".  To  illustrate  the  above 
method  let  us  take  number  one  of  the  township  district  school.  The 
number  of  children  enrolled  in  the  schools  of  the  corporation  is  158. 
The  amount  of  money  paid  out  by  this  township  for  transfers  was 
$320  and  the  amount  received  was  $14  or  a  difference  of  $306. 
The  schools  of  this  corporation  were  in  session  seven  months,  hence 
the  divisor  was  2  X  7  or  14.  306  divided  by  14  equals  21.8.  Since 
more  money  was  paid  out  than  received  it  means  that  there  were 
twenty-two  more  children  transferred  from  than  to  the  schools  of 
that  corporation  and  hence  this  number  must  be  added  to  the  num- 
ber enrolled  in  the  school  of  that  corporation,  which  gives  180. 

While  an  effort  was  made  to  secure  reports  of  the  number  of 
children  enrolled  in  parochial  schools,  no  reliable  data  were  avail- 
able since  these  schools  are  not  under  state  supervision  and  few 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       95 


TABLE  XXXIV 

Population  and  School  Statistics  of  Towns 


a 

a 

a 

1 

^J1 

^ 

»s 

1 
£ 

.2 

If 

a 

11 

**  "1.2 

ill 

li 

Is 

II 

1 

1289 

2116 

397 

279 

329 

271 

19 

93 

160 

2 

439 

476 

135 

113 

126 

84 

2 

136 

3 

911 

832 

191 

150 

211 

164 

7 

7 

180 

4 

864 

915 

192 

137 

214 

170 

11 

10 

160 

5 

1215 

1503 

327 

259 

385 

319 

18 

140 

6 

425 

465 

87 

78 

108 

92 

7 

140 

7 

1428 

1567 

367 

313 

346 

288 

19 

17 

165 

8 

961 

908 

275 

208 

259 

202 

13 

7 

160 

9 

1115 

625 

349 

260 

419 

356 

2 

160 

10 

827 

281 

185 

189 

142 

1 

140 

11 

1166 

1287 

314 

214 

334 

301 

12 

19 

160 

12 

936 

832 

178 

(209) 

226 

192 

14 

4 

160 

13 

1233 

1088 

280 

208 

264 

221 

17 

160 

14 

1148 

1176 

260 

220 

256 

193 

15 

4 

180 

15 

1235 

1275 

312 

260 

343 

308 

5 

16 

180 

16 

1608 

974 

422 

(534) 

574 

482 

29 

18 

160 

17 

1064 

923 

347 

299 

385 

337 

20 

14 

160 

18 

1293 

1512 

297 

(418) 

437 

385 

37 

18 

170 

19 

880 

773 

472 

281 

288 

237 

37 

7 

160 

20 

1757 

1638 

451 

361 

438 

367 

21 

14 

170 

21 

454 

557 

108 

92 

131 

109 

4 

155 

22 

859 

917 

253 

231 

281 

248 

15 

12 

160 

23 

1167 

1244 

266 

237 

289 

276 

17 

9 

180 

24 

675 

614 

179 

156 

214 

187 

11 

19 

160 

25 

899 

975 

221 

179 

279 

237 

14 

8 

160 

submitted  any  information.  It  is  definitely  known  that  a  number 
of  children  of  a  greater  number  of  corporations  attended  parochial 
schools  than  is  indicated  in  these  tables.  The  data  for  the  length 
of  school  year  are  included  in  these  tables  for  lack  of  better  place 
for  the  same. 

Tables  xxxvi,  xxxvii,  xxxviii,  and  xxxix  are  derived  from 
the  preceding  tables  and  show  the  nature  and  extent  of  change 
in  population  in  each  school  corporation  in  each  type  considered, 
the  ratio  of  enrollment  to  school  census,  ratio  of  daily  attendance 
to  enrollment,  and  the  per  cent  of  average  daily  attendance  com- 
pleting the  grades  and  high  school. 


96       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 


TABLE  XXXV 

Population  and  School  Statistics  op  Cities 


a 

- 

g 

a 

3 

'Ja 

il 

1 
■5-S 

1 

.2 
ft 

1.1 

if 

IP 

•S.S2 

III 

So  '^ 

11 

1. 

f2«S 

H-S 

(Ss^ 

^^ 

;z;*sg 

Is*© 

li 

wfe 

»& 

^^ 

1 

3919 

3396 

642 

886 

642 

849 

703 

58 

20 

180 

2 

3335 

3005 

510 

799 

510 

616 

498 

32 

33 

180 

3 

8838 

6460 

2975 

1980 

1530 

180 

4 

9340 

7786 

1934 

2902 

1934 

2139 

1743 

52 

180 

5 

7738 

6836 

1894 

1245 

1314 

1037 

34 

31 

180 

6 

6229 

2918 

1710 

1165 

1204 

928 

28 

25 

180 

7 

8813 

8130 

270 

2142 

1572 

1731 

1348 

80 

69 

180 

8 

2526 

2336 

640 

362 

430 

342 

20 

13 

180 

9 

8514 

7810 

2040 

1518 

1580 

1300 

68 

61 

180 

10 

5420 

5034 

1542 

924 

1089 

880 

52 

48 

180 

11 

2464 

2527 

744 

406 

462 

369 

25 

13 

177 

12 

10412 

10774 

107 

4451 

1802 

1850 

1408 

69 

31 

180 

13 

17010 

10609 

4337 

2997 

3419 

2191 

64 

69 

178 

14 

10525 

7113 

3559 

1531 

1603 

1179 

31 

34 

190 

15 

3930 

4326 

118 

1063 

591 

656 

568 

24 

31 

180 

16 

4529 

4038 

1375 

651 

1085 

893 

51 

32 

180 

17 

5073 

4792 

1278 

901 

1053 

878 

47 

29 

180 

18 

2915 

2823 

760 

419 

644 

496 

21 

180 

19 

5130 

4798 

1349 

1065 

1165 

998 

45 

23 

180 

20 

4925 

4541 

1197 

804 

969 

780 

48 

40 

170 

21 

4115 

3118 

1103 

950 

1106 

914 

42 

180 

22 

4075 

3764 

1227 

921 

1006 

897 

33 

29 

180 

23 

7854 

8551 

2482 

1323 

1483 

1341 

47 

42 

180 

24 

4266 

3705 

1159 

753 

5901 

180 

25 

20081 

18116 

5678 

3016 

3075 

2470 

140 

45 

185 

In  fairly  stable  communities  the  number  of  graduates  from  the 
grades  and  high  school  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  index  of  the  power 
of  the  schools  of  any  corporation  to  retain  the  pupils  enrolled. 
While  we  have  sufficient  data  with  reference  to  number  of 
graduates,  we  were  unable  to  determine  the  ratio  of  the  number  of 
graduates  to  the  average  daily  attendance  in  the  grades  and  high 
school  separately,  since  the  reports  gave  the  average  daily  attend- 
ance of  grades  and  high  school  together.  The  ratios  of  the 
graduates  in  both  grades  and  high  school  to  the  total  average  daily 
attendance  in  each  school  corporation  necessarily  favor  school 
corporations  with  large  high  school  attendance  and  comparatively 


TABLE  XXXVI 
Changes  in  Population  and  Statistics  of  Township  District  Schools 
Given  in  Per  cent 


i 

Change  in  population 
in  ten  years 

■si 

2-3 

1 

Ml 

llll 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

£11 

o2 

11 

1 

-60 

-7.0 

26.6 

79.6 

79.6 

8.7 

2 

-247 

-9.6 

34.5 

62.0 

94.0 

6.7 

3 

-176 

-16.3 

34.5 

64.7 

84.2 

4 

-208 

-11.1 

28.2 

84.0 

69.8 

8.1 

5 

47 

6.0 

35.6 

62.7 

83.8 

11.1 

6 

-351 

-9.6 

27.2 

76.0 

•  70.0 

5.3 

7 

14 

1.6 

25.7 

75.0 

68.1 

3.2 

8 

-124 

-6.9 

27.1 

76.1 

79.8 

2.8 

9 

12 

1.5 

28.5 

88.0 

78.6 

5.4 

10 

-324 

-15.4 

31.3 

76.6 

79.2 

5.9 

11 

-60 

-5.0 

35.8 

78.0 

52.1 

.8 

12 

20 

1.7 

31.5 

78.0 

84.0 

7.3 

13 

-121 

-9.4 

27.6 

84.0 

77.1 

10.3 

14 

-19 

-3.5 

29.6 

68.3 

65.2 

5.5 

15 

5 

.9 

27.5 

65.1 

79.1 

5.3 

16 

-36 

-2.3 

26.4 

78.0 

79.9 

11.0 

17 

-93 

-8.8 

28.6 

78.5 

85.0 

5.8 

18 

173 

17.3 

27.4 

80.2 

70.8 

19 

138 

19.3 

35.5 

53.2 

68.3 

13.1 

20 

-225 

-13.2 

27.5 

37.8 

7.14 

13.6 

21 

-212 

-16.8 

28.2 

87.0 

83.6 

8.6 

22 

55 

2.9 

32.1 

62.2 

73.7 

5.3 

23 

-188 

-6.6 

27.3 

90.6 

76.0 

5.1 

24 

-2 

-.2 

27.4 

72.0 

71.8 

25 

-47 

-6.6 

26.7 

82.9 

84.8 

3.4 

26 

-230 

-8.7 

30.0 

86.2 

*    82.7 

4.6 

27 

-381 

-20.1 

28.1 

89.0 

68.3 

7.4 

28 

-264 

-8.8 

28.9 

76.7 

78.6 

6.7 

29 

-257 

-17.6 

28.4 

81.2 

71.1 

1.5 

30 

-37 

-4.5 

25.8 

89.7 

64.1 

9.3 

[97] 


98       A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 


TABLE  XXXVII 

Changes  in  Population  and  Statistics  of  Township  Consolidated 
Schools  Given  in  Per  cent 


l. 

Change  in  population 

"tS 

l| 

jgrt 

1 

in  ten  years 

3^ 

M 

p 

2*S 

'*i 

■s 

1 

1 

III 
111 

^1 

4->            U 

111 

mi 

1 

-14 

-1.2 

26.1 

89.7 

84.5 

8.3 

2 

0 

0 

26.4 

76.8 

82.0 

4.9 

3 

95 

5.5 

25.1 

66.3 

11.7 

4 

-49 

-1.6 

26.6 

88.0 

84.8 

8.9 

5 

-40 

-3.5 

26.4 

65.6 

75.1 

13.1 

6 

35 

1.8 

24.6 

86.2 

84.6 

10.6 

7 

44 

2.8 

25.7 

70.1 

11.9 

8 

-63 

-4.4 

27.5 

81.0 

92.8 

11.8 

9 

-143 

-16.1 

24.5 

83.8 

88.1 

7.2 

10 

-330 

-14.9 

24.0 

87.5 

87.8 

8.0 

11 

-66 

-8.5 

23.1 

85.0 

97.8 

6.6 

12 

-5 

-.8 

26.1 

83.1 

77.8 

5.1 

13 

-100 

-11.5 

24.4 

87.1 

75.1 

10.2 

14 

7 

1.1 

23.2 

90.6 

85.2 

6.7 

15 

-36 

-6.8 

24.6 

63.8 

85.0 

18.9 

16 

-123 

-20.1 

29.0 

77.1 

86.3 

5.1 

17 

-110 

-11.2 

26.6 

71.3 

81.3 

small  grade  attendance.  Since,  however,  the  town  and  consolidated 
schools  are  very  similar  in  this  respect,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  relative 
standing  of  the  two  in  the  above  table  would  be  changed  if  we  had 
exact  data  concerning  this  point. 

Table  xl  shows  the  central  tendencies  and  deviations  in  data 
given  in  the  preceding  tables  and  provides  a  basis  for  comparison 
of  the  standing  of  the  different  corporations  and  schools  in  the 
different  phases  considered.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that 
there  is  a  decrease  in  population  in  all  types  of  school  corporations 
except  the  city,  in  which  there  is  a  marked  increase.  While  there 
is  an  increase  in  a  few  of  the  corporations  of  township  district, 
consolidated  and  town  schools,  this  increase  is  more  than  offset 
by  the  number  which  show  a  decreasing  population  as  well  as  the 
amount  of  the  decrease.  The  total  change  in  all  the  townships  with 
district  schools  was  a  decrease  of  3,250  or  5.7  per  cent.  The  de- 
crease in  townships  with  consolidated  schools  was  a  total  of  838 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana       99 


TABLE  XXXVIII 

Changes  in  Population  and  Statistics  of  Town  Schools  Given  in 

Per  cent 


f 

Change  in  popiilation 
in  ten  years 

U 

"§1 

it 

Iji 

2 

^ 

1 

II 

ft 

1-- 

111 

nil 

1 

-827 

-63.8 

30.7 

70.0 

82.6 

7.7 

2 

-37 

-8.4 

30.8 

83.6 

66.7 

2.4 

3 

79 

8.7 

20.9 

78.5 

77.5 

8.6 

4 

-51 

-5.9 

22.2 

71.3 

79.5 

12.4 

5 

-288 

-23.9 

26.6 

73.0 

82.9 

5.7 

6 

-40 

-9.4 

20.5 

89.9 

85.0 

7.6 

7 

-139 

-9.7 

25.4 

85.6 

83.2 

12.4 

8 

53 

5.5 

28.6 

75.8 

78.1 

9.9 

9 

490 

44.0 

31.4 

74.7 

85.2 

10 

34.0 

66.0 

75.1 

11 

-121 

-10.2 

26.9 

68.0 

90.2 

10.2 

12 

104 

11.1 

18.0 

85.0 

9.3 

13 

145 

11.8 

22.8 

74.1 

83.8 

7.7 

14 

-28 

-2.8 

22.6 

84.8 

75.2 

10.0 

15 

-40 

-3.2 

25.3 

83.2 

89.9 

6.8 

16 

634 

52.2 

26.3 

84.1 

9.8 

17 

141 

13.2 

32.6 

86.1 

87.5 

10.1 

18 

-219 

-17.5 

23.0 

88.1 

14.3 

19 

27 

3.0 

59.8 

82.2 

18.6 

20 

119 

6.8 

25.8 

80.0 

83.9 

9.6 

21 

-104 

-23.0 

23.8 

86.2 

83.1 

22 

-58 

-6.8 

29.5 

91.2 

88.1 

10.9 

23 

-77 

-6.7 

22.9 

89.0 

95.3 

9.4 

24 

61 

9.0 

26.5 

87.1 

87.5 

16.1 

25 

-76 

-8.5 

24.6 

80.8 

85.0 

9.3 

or  4.4  per  cent.  The  number  of  towns  with  a  decrease  in  population 
slightly  exceeded  the  number  with  an  increase  in  population  during 
the  preceding  ten  years.  The  total  change  was  a  decrease  of  262 
or  one  per  cent.  Only  one-sixth  of  the  cities  show  a  decrease  in 
population,  while  the  total  change  was  an  increase  of  25,276  or 
15.5  per  cent.  It  will  also  be  noted  that  the  townships  with  district 
schools  have  a  greater  number  of  children  of  legal  school  age  in 
proportion  to  the  total  population  than  the  consolidated  town  or 
city  schools,  while  the  city  ranks  second  and  townships  with  con- 
solidated schools  and  towns  have  about  equal  ratios.     This  would 


lOO     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 


TABLE  XXXIX 
Changes  in  Population  and  Statistics  of  City  Schools  Given 
IN  Per  cent 


Change  in 

population 

^i 

.- 

ra  >j 

1 

in  ten  years 

"§1 

3'rt 

*?> 

"o  S  « 

•^2 

"o.SS 

•S^'l.'^ 

o 

52: 

1 

d 

lit 

1 

pLi  cd  cd  60  en 

1 

523 

13.4 

22.6 

72.8 

82.8 

11.3 

2 

330 

10.0 

24.0 

64.0 

82.2 

13.2 

3 

2378 

26.8 

33.6 

77.2 

4 

1554 

16.6 

31.2 

66.5 

81.5 

5 

902 

11.6 

24.5 

65.8 

78.5 

6.3 

6 

3311 

53.2 

27.4 

68.3 

77.2 

5.7 

7 

683 

77.5 

24.1 

83.6 

77.9 

11.1 

8 

190 

4.3 

25.4 

56.7 

79.5 

9.6 

9 

704 

8.2 

23.8 

74.4 

82.2 

9.9 

10 

386 

7.1 

27.8 

59.8 

81.1 

11.4 

11 

-53 

-2.2 

31.3 

54.8 

79.9 

10.4 

12 

-362 

-3.5 

42.7 

40.8 

76.3 

7.1 

13 

6401 

37.5 

25.4 

69.0 

64.0 

6.1 

14 

3412 

32.5 

33.8 

42.8 

73.8 

5.6 

15 

-396 

-10.1 

27.1 

55.5 

86.7 

9.7 

16 

491 

10.8 

30.2 

47.5 

82.3 

9.3 

17 

281 

5.5 

25.1 

70.7 

83.4 

8.6 

18 

91 

3.1 

26.1 

55.1 

77.1 

19 

332 

6.5 

26.3 

78.1 

85.6 

6.8 

20 

384 

7.8 

24.3 

67.3 

80.8 

11.3 

21 

997 

24.1 

26.8 

86.0 

82.3 

22 

311 

7.7 

30.2 

75.0 

88.1 

6.9 

23 

HS97 

-8.9 

31.8 

53.6 

90.6 

6.6 

24 

561 

13.2 

27.1 

78.2 

25 

1865 

9.3 

28.4 

53.3 

81.0 

7.8 

seem  to  indicate  that  the  population  of  townships  with  consolidated 
schools  and  towns  is  made  up  more  largely  of  older  residents,  many 
of  whom  have  perhaps  retired  from  active  business  and  whose 
children  are  beyond  legal  school  age. 

The  statistics  bear  out  the  contention  made  by  advocates  of 
consolidated  schools  that  consolidation  means  a  larger  enrollment 
of  children  in  the  schools  of  the  township,  since  the  ratio  of  enroll- 
ment to  school  census  for  consolidated  schools  is  81.1  per  cent, 
while  that  of  the  town  is  79.5  per  cent,  township  district  schools 
78.1,  and  that  of  the  city  schools  is  only  61  per  cent.  It  will  also  be 
noted  that  the  variation  for  consolidated  schools  is  less  than  that 


Ill 

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33UI3AV 

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9[iVtBnC) 

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V0»0  fO  CM 

aa'BjaAv 

t^  OOOO  OO 

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38CJ3AV 

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CS  CSCM  CN 

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a 

a 

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dSu'cqa  JO 

-5.7 
-4.4 
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15.5 

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-3250 
-838 
-262 

25279 

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93uvxp  JO 

1U3D  J3  J 

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t^t^-oo  O 

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jo^uaD  aa  J 

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jo'jaqumN 

CS  ^  i-H 

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Township 
Consolidated 
Town 
City 

[lOl] 


I02     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

for  any  other  type.  While  the  enrollment  in  consolidated  schools 
surpasses  that  in  all  other  types,  it  will  be  noted  that  in  average 
daily  attendance  the  consolidated  schools  rank  second  to  the  town 
schools,  but  excel  both  city  and  township  district  schools.  This  is 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  town  school  corporations  are  small 
and  offer  few  inducements  to  older  boys  and  girls  to  drop  out  to 
engage  in  some  economic  pursuit.  Taking  the  tables  as  they  are 
given,  we  note  that  the  town  schools  rank  first  in  the  retention  of 
their  pupils  and  that  the  consolidated  schools  rank  second,  while 
the  township  district  and  city  schools  are  about  equal. 

The  average  length  of  the  school  year  for  township  district 
schools  is  139  days  with  a  variation  of  14  days  as  compared  with 
1 56. 1  days  for  consolidated  schools  with  a  variation  of  10,  160.6 
days  for  town  schools,  and  179  for  city  schools. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  said  that  the  consolidated  schools  are 
found  in  townships  in  which  there  is  less  decrease  in  population 
than  in  townships  with  district  schools,  and  in  townships  with  older 
residents  and  comparatively  fewer  children  of  legal  school  age; 
that  consolidation  increases  the  enrollment,  average  daily  attend- 
ance, the  power  of  the  school  to  retain  its  pupils,  and  the  length 
of  the  school  year,  but  the  consolidated  school  does  not  equal 
its  pupils,  which  surpasses  both  the  township  district  and  city 
schools  with  reference  to  these  points. 


CHAPTER  VII 
School  Finances — Receipts 

The  question  of  financial  support  of  schools  is  a  vital  one  and 
will  bear  much  study.  No  investigation  concerning  the  educational 
situation  in  the  different  types  of  schools  would  be  complete,  which 
did  not  take  into  consideration  the  corporation  wealth  upon  which 
the  financial  support  of  the  school  is  based,  the  distribution  of  the 
total  receipts  of  each  corporation,  the  ratio  of  the  amount  raised 
for  schools  to  the  amount  raised  for  other  purposes,  and  a  compari- 
son of  the  amount  received  for  tuition  or  teachers'  salaries,  with 
the  amount  received  for  buildings  and  equipment,  as  well  as  a  study 
of  the  distribution  of  the  state  funds  among  the  schools  of 
each  type.  The  data  on  which  the  first  part  of  this  phase  of  the 
investigation  is  based,  is  the  property  valuation  and  tax  levies  in 
each  corporation,  and  the  distribution  of  the  state  funds  and  other 
indirect  receipts  as  given  in  total  number  of  dollars  received  from 
each  source. 

The  tax  levies,  instead  of  the  total  amounts  received  or  the 
budget  for  the  year,  are  made  the  basis  for  comparison  on  account 
of  availability  and  completeness  of  the  data.  The  total  receipts  for 
each  item,  if  available,  would  be  a  little  more  satisfactory  basis  for 
comparison,  since  the  somewhat  variable  factor,  poll  tax,  which  is 
not  included  when  we  consider  property  tax  alone,  would  be  elimi- 
nated. This,  however,  is  a  very  minor  factor  since  there  are  no 
wide  variations  among  different  corporations  and  the  property  tax 
without  the  poll  tax  is  a  better  index  of  the  support  given  the 
various  accounts  or  departments  in  each  corporation.  The  number 
of  polls  and  amount  assessed  were  given,  but  there  was  nothing  to 
show  how  many  paid  the  assessment.  A  comparison  of  the  amount 
of  tax  levied  on  each  poll  by  the  state,  county,  and  local  corporation, 
shows  little  or  no  difference  in  the  township  with  district  schools 
and  the  township  with  consolidated  schools,  while  the  amount  of  the 
levy  by  cities  is  greater  than  either,  and  the  amount  of  the  levy  by 
towns  exceeds  that  of  the  cities.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  same 
relationship  exists  among  the  various  corporations  in  the  amount 
of  the  tax  levied  on  property  in  the  different  types  considered,  so 
that  the  elimination  of  poll  tax  in  consideration  of  support  of 
schools  will  not  affect  the  results  materially. 


I04     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

The  tables  giving  the  property  valuation  and  tax  levies  differ 
from  preceding  tables  in  that  they  are  exact  and  complete  and  have 
been  compiled  from  reports  according  to  the  specifications  of  the 
law  governing  the  same  and  are  thus  free  from  the  variations  which 
might  otherwise  have  been  noticeable.  This  is  one  phase  of  the  in- 
vestigation that  is  based  on  uniform  reports  and  is  a  good  illustra- 
tion of  what  might  be  expected  if  such  uniformity  prevailed  in  other 
departments.  While  the  items  given  for  the  township  and  consoli- 
dated schools  differ  somewhat  from  those  given  for  town  and  city 
corporations,  the  similarity  is  so  great  that  valid  comparisons  are 
easily  made.  In  the  tables  which  follow,  it  will  be  observed  that 
the  first  column  calls  for  total  assessed  valuation  less  mortgage 
exemptions.  It  might  be  explained  that  there  is  a  law  in  force  in 
Indiana  at  the  present  time  which  permits  any  resident  holding 
property  on  which  there  is  a  mortgage  to  file  an  affidavit  with  the 
county  auditor,  which  will  exempt  such  property  from  taxation  to 
the  amount  of  seven  hundred  dollars  valuation,  provided  the  mort- 
gage is  equal  to  or  greater  than  this  amount. 

The  total  tax  which  any  resident  of  the  state  pays  is  the  sum 
total  of  the  levies  made  by  the  state,  county,  and  local  corporation. 
The  state  tax  for  191 1  was  $0.3185  on  each  one  hundred  dollars 
valuation  and  was  divided  as  follows : 

State    $0.09 

Debt 015 

School    136 

State  university  and  state  normal  school 0275 

Benevolent  institutions 05 

This  tax,  as  will  be  observed,  is  the  same  for  all  corporations.  It 
should  be  explained  that  the  state  levy  for  schools  is  distributed  in 
two  ways.  A  part  is  given^as  special  aid  to  those  school  corporations 
whose  local  taxes  are  not  sufficient  to  maintain  schools  equal  to  the 
standard  specified  by  law,  and  the  remainder  is  distributed  on  the 
census  basis. 

The  county  levy  is  the  same  for  all  corporations  in  each  county. 
The  local  tax  is  levied,  in  the  case  of  townships  by  the  township 
trustee,  and  in  the  towns  and  cities  by  the  town  and  city  councils. 
In  Table  xliv  it  will  be  observed  that  the  local  tax  is  distributed 
as  follows :  Township,  Tuition,  Special  School,  Poor,  Road,  Gravel 
road,  and  all  other  purposes.  The  township  levy  is  made  for  the 
purpose  of  meeting  the  general  running  expenses  of  a  township  and 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      105 

corresponds  very  closely  to  the  corporation  levy  of  the  towns  and 
cities.  The  salary  of  the  trustee,  the  road  supervisor,  office  expenses, 
traveling  expenses,  and  the  like,  are  paid  from  this  fund.  The 
tuition  of  pupils  attending  schools  in  other  corporations  may  also 
be  paid  out  of  this  fund.  The  tuition  levy  is  made  to  pay  the 
salaries  of  the  teachers.  The  salaries  of  the  advisory  staff  and  the 
expenses  of  buildings  and  equipments  are  paid  out  of  the  special 
school  fimd.  The  distinction  between  roads  and  gravel  roads  is  that 
the  levy  for  "Roads"  is  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  all  highways 
that  have  not  been  macadamized,  while  "Gravel  roads"  is  the  levy 
made  to  pay  the  bonds  which  were  issued  by  a  special  vote  of  the 
citizens  of  the  township  for  the  purpose  of  building  macadam  roads. 
All  levies  for  purely  local  purposes  are  given  under  the  item  "All 
other  purposes".  The  distribution  of  local  taxes  in  town  and  city 
corporations  needs  no  explanation. 

Anyone  interested  in  the  taxes  of  the  townships  in  which  rural 
schools  are  maintained,  will  observe  by  study  of  Table  xliv  that 
there  is  little  correlation  between  the  assessed  valuation  of  a  cor- 
poration and  the  amount  of  the  local  tax  for  that  corporation. 
A  corporation  with  high  valuation  may  have  a  high  local  levy,  as 
in  the  case  of  township  number  two,  or  a  low  local  levy,  as  in  the 
case  of  township  number  twenty-eight,  and  in  like  manner  it  will 
be  observed  that  a  township  with  a  low  valuation  may  have  a  low 
tax  levy,  as  in  the  case  of  township  number  fourteen,  or  a  high  local 
tax,  as  in  the  case  of  township  number  eighteen.  If  the  size  of  the 
townships  and  the  number  of  schools  maintained  were  the  same, 
these  facts  might  justify  an  investigation,  but  since  there  is  a  con- 
siderable variation  in  the  size  of  the  townships  and  the  density  of 
the  population,  no  inferences  are  justifiable  on  these  data  alone.  The 
variability  observed  in  the  townships  with  district  schools  is  also 
to  be  observed  in  the  townships  with  consolidated  schools,  but  not 
in  such  a  marked  degree.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  state 
levy  is  uniform  in  all  corporations  and  that  the  variation  in  the 
county  is  not  great,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  total  amount  of 
taxes  in  towns  greatly  exceeds  that  in  the  townships,  but  is  not  equal 
to  the  total  tax  levies  in  the  cities.  The  central  tendencies  and 
variations  in  the  tax  levies  on  one  hundred  dollars,  is  given  in  Table 
XLV.  The  variation  in  the  amount  of  the  county  tax  in  the  four 
types  of  schools  considered  is  probably  due  to  the  additional  office 
expenses  necessary  to  keep  the  records  of  the  counties  in  which 


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12; 

[III] 


112      A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

large  centers  of  population  are  located.  The  average  levy  by  the 
county  in  the  counties  in  which  are  located  the  tow^nship  district 
schools  is  $0.4515,  which  is  the  same  as  in  counties  in  which  con- 
solidated schools  are  located,  with  the  same  variability,  while  the 
average  county  levy  for  the  towns  considered,  is  $0,485  and  the  city 
is  $0,493  with  a  variability  of  $0.04.  The  central  tendency  of  the 
local  levies  increases  in  the  order  in  which  the  different  corporations 
are  given,  that  is,  the  township  levies  average  $1.20  with  a  variability 
of  $0,262,  the  consolidated  at  $1.61  with  a  variation  of  $0.23,  and 
the  local  levy  of  the  cities  is  $2.43  with  a  variation  of  $0.22,  The 
same  relationship  exists  among  the  totals  of  the  different  types 
of  corporations,  ranging  from  the  central  tendency  $1.98  and  a 
variability  of  $0.25  in  the  case  of  townships  to  an  average  of  $3.25 
for  cities  with  a  variability  of  $0.33.  The  distribution  of  the  local 
levies  shows  that  the  tax  levy  for  school  purposes  in  townships  with 
consolidated  schools,  which  averages  $0,708  with  a  variability  of 
$0,074  for  the  sum  of  the  tuition  and  special  school  funds,  is  much 
greater  than  that  in  townships  with  district  schools  which  average 
$0,465  with  a  variability  of  $0.07,  but  does  not  equal  the  tax  levy  for 
schools  in  cities  which  average  $0,837  with  a  variability  of  $0,117, 
and  that  the  levy  for  school  purposes  in  towns,  which  average 
$0,915  with  a  variability  of  $0,095,  exceeds  that  of  all  other 
types.  The  tax  levy  for  the  township  or  corporation  purposes  is 
lower  in  townships  with  consolidated  schools  than  in  townships 
with  district  schools.  The  tax  levy  in  cities  for  the  same  purpose 
exceeds  that  of  the  towns.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  it  is  gen- 
erally assumed  that  consolidated  schools  are  located  in  townships 
with  the  better  improved  highways,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  levy 
for  roads  in  townships  with  district  schools  is  $0,585  with  a  varia- 
bility of  $0,145  as  compared  with  a  levy  of  $0.37  with  a  variability 
of  $0.16  in  townships  with  consolidated  schools.  The  fact  that  the 
average  levy  for  road  or  street  purposes  in  towns,  which  is  $0,447 
with  a  variability  of  $0,148,  exceeds  the  levy  for  cities  which  is 
$0,302  with  a  variability  of  $0,141,  seems  somewhat  unusual,  but 
is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  town  as  a  center  of  population 
is  located  in  townships  which  spend  considerable  money  for  ma- 
cadam roads  yet  do  not  have  sufficient  property  within  the  cor- 
porations to  equalize  the  tax  levy  for  this  purpose,  as  do  the  larger 
centers  of  population  with  greater  property  valuation. 


Si 


lO 

lO^Om 

CM  CM  ro  CO 

anv^nf) 

S 

"3 

o 

H 

OOOv  -^  lO 

sSviaAy 

Ov  CM  Ov  r>4 

CM         lO 

vOfOOvCM 

anv^D 

CN  CM  CM  <M 

E  '  ■  ■ 

1 

O  1-1  PD  C*5 

«N  \0  ,-tTj* 

aSBjaAV 

^^<M(M 

On  »0 

ssss 

ail^BnO 

E 

>. 

§ 

o 

" 

lOiO 

lO  lOCX)  On 

32BJ3AV 

E 

anuwio 

OOOO 

rt 

00  00  00  C» 

C/3 

3»W3AV 

E 

O  oo  Q  CM 

t^OONO 

.0 

aipjTOO 

•ooTthno 

1 

«^                    -H 

& 

S 

•a 

1 

On  '-it^  00 
OCSO^OO 

c3 

t>>  th  ro  ▼— < 

98BJ3AV 

^^??;^ 

»-H  »-l           CO 

«» 

-s 

a«j 

^1 

gig& 

i 

o  o  o.ti 

1 

HUHO 

3 

anu^O 

? 
$0.09 
.21 
.159 

aSuiaAV 

$0,010 
.067 
.270 
.363 

1 

1 

aipjBTi^ 

$0,145 
.160 
.148 
.141 

33BJ3AV 

$0  .585 
.37 
.447 
.302 

1 

aipiTO^ 

$0,015 
.005 
.015 
.015 

a8BJ3AV 

$0,022 
.008 
.02 
.053 

1 

1 

1 

^II^renf) 

$0.07 
.074 
.095 
.117 

38UI3AV 

lO  oo  lO  t^ 

Tjtt^ONOO 

8  '  ■  ' 

.a 

anVBnO 

CM               lO 

E 

33b»av 

$0,244 
.450 
.456 
.485 

1 

aipjrenO 

$0.05 
.055 
.05 
.095 

3SBJ3AY 

NOOO-HVO 

1— 1  lO  lO  t^ 

CM  CM  Tf  CO 

E     '  ' 

It 

aniJTO^ 

$0,032 
.031 
.15 
.25 

aScaaAv 

$0,146 
.103 

.485 
.871 

Township 
Consolidated 
Town 
City 

[113] 


TABLE  XLVI 
Wealth  per  Capita  School  Population  and  Percentile  Distribution  of  Tax 
Levies  in  Township  with  District  Schools 


« 

1 

*© 

T3 

3 

1 

h 

l! 
II 

>. 

c 

D. 

j 

1 

C/3 

(2 

1 

1 

1 

o 

1 

$3371 

15.6 

21.4 

63.0 

6.7 

12.2 

13.0 

.8 

21.3 

46.0 

2 

1835 

11.5 

22.8 

65.7 

5.5 

22.0 

27.5 

1.1 

11.0 

33.0 

3 

2208 

13.5 

26.8 

59.7 

15.2 

21.5 

14.3 

10.6 

38.4 

4 

3052 

15.8 

21.4 

62.8 

8.7 

23.6 

10.3 

1.6 

31.5 

23.6 

.8 

5 

971 

14.3 

19.3 

61.4 

11.0 

18.2 

11.0 

1.4 

22.0 

36.4 

6 

1677 

11.3 

19.7 

69.0 

7.6 

16.4 

20.5 

1.5 

12.9 

41.1 

7 

2205 

13.1 

19.1 

67.8 

17.3 

18.4 

18.4 

1.3 

24.6 

18.4 

2.5 

8 

1641 

13.5 

22.2 

64.3 

6.6 

19.7 

19.7 

23.0 

31.0 

9 

3089 

19.3 

26.7 

54.0 

18.0 

18.0 

18.0 

1.2 

44.8 

10 

2527 

15.7 

19.4 

64.9 

7.5 

19.0 

11.5 

23.0 

39.0 

11 

1411 

18.3 

28.3 

53.4 

25.8 

12.9 

10.8 

2.1 

10.8 

37.6 

12 

2338 

19.8 

30.7 

49.5 

31.6 

6.3 

6.3 

1.2 

12.6 

42.0 

13 

3854 

20.6 

28.6 

50.8 

12.2 

23.1 

24.4 

3.7 

36.0 

14 

2893 

19.5 

19.2 

61.3 

17.0 

20.0 

20.0 

3.0 

40.0 

15 

6121 

18.9 

26.9 

54.2 

18.7 

26.4 

12.1 

5.5 

23.1 

11.0 

3.2 

16 

4230 

16.1 

19.4 

54.5 

12.8 

15.7 

7.8 

15.7 

44.9 

3.9 

17 

2490 

13.2 

15.8 

71.0 

5.8 

17.7 

29.4 

.6 

14.7 

31.8 

18 

1171 

12.4 

27.1 

60.5 

16.2 

16.2 

25.8 

22.6 

19.3 

19 

4204 

16.0 

22.3 

61.7 

12.3 

12.3 

20.5 

8.2 

46.7 

20 

4475 

16.5 

23.5 

60.0 

7.0 

17.4 

17.4 

1.7 

13.1 

39.1 

4.3 

21 

4674 

21.3 

25.6 

53.1 

10.1 

20.2 

15.2 

2.5 

22.8 

29.1 

22 

2350 

15.2 

22.6 

62.2 

9.2 

23.1 

23.1 

7.7 

23.1 

10.0 

3.8 

23 

3588 

18.5 

23.4 

58.1 

10.0 

26.0 

22.0 

10.0 

30.0 

2.0 

24 

3550 

21.7 

24.8 

53.5 

20.5 

25.6 

25.6 

28.3 

25 

5794 

16.3 

24.8 

58.9 

10.4 

22.0 

8.7 

.9 

24.6 

33.4 

26 

3318 

15.7 

17.3 

67.0 

7.4 

14.7 

33.2 

1.4 

11.8 

31.6 

27 

4483 

17.7 

26.8 

55.5 

14.0 

19.0 

22.0 

11.0 

34.0 

28 

4338 

19.7 

27.8 

52.5 

8.3 

18.8 

18.8 

4.7 

49.4 

29- 

5481 

17.9 

33.9 

48.2 

11.6 

25.5 

29.1 

4.6 

11.6 

17.5 

30 

4184 

17.6 

25.2 

57.2 

16.5 

29.1 

23.4 

1.9 

29.1 

[114] 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      115 


TABLE  XLVII 

Wealth  per  Capita  School  Population  and  Percentile  Distribution  of  Tax 

Levies  in  Township  with  Consolidated  Schools 


^1 

ll 

^^  1 

i 

C/3 

1 

a, 

e2 

e 
0 

t 

:2-3 

1 

1 

ll 
OS 

1 

$5001 

13.6 

19.3 

67.1 

6.6 

12.7 

31.5 

1.3 

16.4 

31.5 

2 

6041 

14.4 

23.8 

61.8 

5.8 

18.5 

36.0 

5.8 

33.9 

3 

3995 

15.0 

18.5 

66.5 

7.1 

16.3 

35.5 

12.8 

28.4 

4 

3735 

13.5 

16.6 

69.9 

9.1 

9.1 

30.3 

18.2 

33.4 

5 

1909 

15.0 

21.0 

64.0 

4.4 

30.0 

37.3 

15.0 

13.2 

6 

4309 

15.6 

21.9 

62.5 

6.2 

24.0 

38.8 

23.3 

7.7 

7 

3892 

16.0 

13.0 

71.0 

7.1 

21.3 

35.5 

2.8 

12.1 

21.2 

8 

3820 

15.8 

19.2 

65.0 

10.0 

28.5 

30.8 

.8 

13.9 

15.4 

.7 

9 

6117 

17.3 

26.2 

56.5 

8.7 

17.4 

31.6 

1.0 

24.0 

17.3 

10 

4292 

17.5 

26.5 

56.0 

5.9 

24.5 

39.1 

2.0 

17.6 

10.8 

11 

7530 

19.9 

30.1 

50.0 

12.3 

25.0 

50.0 

1.2 

10.0 

1.3 

12 

7178 

19.3 

29.2 

51.5 

9.4 

22.4 

58.8 

9.4 

13 

3961 

15.6 

22.4 

62.0 

11.2 

24.8 

40.0 

24.0 

14 

3459 

14.1 

20.1 

65.8 

10.2 

20.3 

33.7 

.7 

23.6 

11.5 

15 

3938 

13.7 

19.5 

66.8 

6.4 

22.5 

35.5 

19.4 

16.2 

16 

5801 

15.6 

28.1 

56.3 

4.4 

17.3 

15.6 

.9 

17.4 

44.4 

17 

3986 

13.7 

15.8 

70.5 

12.3 

12.3 

31.2 

18.7 

11.8 

13.7 

Levies  in  towns  and  cities  for  water,  lighting,  and  the  like,  are 
grouped  in  Table  xlv  under  the  heading,  "All  other  purposes," 
simply  because  there  is  nothing  in  the  other  corporations  which  is 
comparable  to  these  expenditures.  Tax  levies  for  all  these  purposes 
are  much  greater  in  the  cities  than  in  the  towns. 

Tables  xlvi,  xlvii,  xlviii,  and  xlix  are  derived  from  the 
preceding  tables  and  express  in  per  cents  the  distribution  of  the  tax 
levies  for  the  various  purposes.  For  example  township  number  one 
in  Table  xlvi  is  read  as  follows :  The  wealth  per  child  of  school 
age  is  $3,371,  15.6  per  cent  of  the  total  tax  levy  is  levied  by  the  state^ 
21.4  per  cent  by  the  county,  and  63  per  cent  by  the  township.  Six 
and  seven-tenths  of  the  total  local  levy  in  this  township  is  levied  for 
township  purposes,  12.2  per  cent  is  levied  for  tuition  purposes,  13 
per  cent  for  special  school  fund,  .8  of  one  per  cent  for  poor,  21.3  per 
cent  for  roads,  and  46  per  cent  for  gravel  roads,  or  in  other  words, 
in  this  township  one-eighth  of  the  total  levy  is  for  salaries  of  the 
teachers  in  that  township,  which  is  about  one-half  as  much  as  is 
raised  for  the  roads  and  about  one-fourth  as  much  as  is  raised  for 


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[ii6] 


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11.7 

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[117] 


1 18      A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

gravel  roads.  The  variation  observed  in  the  state  levies  in  the  differ- 
ent types  of  corporations  is  due  to  the  great  variation  in  the  local 
levies.  When  the  local  levy  is  low  then  the  ratio  of  the  state  levy  to 
the  total  levy  will  be  high. 

Tables  xlvii,  xlviii,  and  xlix  are  to  be  read  in  a  similar 
manner.  By  expressing  the  tax  levies  in  per  cent  of  the  total,  we 
have  a  basis  for  direct  comparison  of  the  amount  of  money  raised 
for  the  various  purposes  in  any  corporation  as  well  as  the  relative 
support  in  different  corporations  with  the  same  type  of  school  and 
relative  distribution  of  funds  raised  in  the  one  type  as  compared 
with  the  distribution  found  in  another.  These  tables  make  it  possible 
to  avoid  errors  in  inferring  that  one  corporation  is  more  liberal  in 
the  support  of  some  department  or  account,  when  considered  in  rela- 
tion to  the  amount  raised  for  other  purposes,  it  is  relatively  low. 
In  number  five  of  the  townships  with  district  schools  it  will  be  ob- 
served that  only  ii  per  cent  of  the  total  local  levy  was  for  school 
buildings  and  18.2  per  cent  of  the  total  local  levy  was  for  the  pay- 
ment of  teachers.  While  in  township  number  twenty-six  one-third 
of  the  total  levy  is  for  the  building  and  equipment  of  school  houses 
and  only  14.7  per  cent  for  the  salaries  of  teachers.  The  central  ten- 
dencies and  variabilities  in  terms  of  per  cent  are  given  in  Table  l. 
The  average  wealth  per  capita  school  population  in  townships  with 
consolidated  schools  is  $4412,  as  compared  with  $3251  for  township 
district  schools,  $1912  for  cities,  and  $1432  for  town  schools,  which 
means  that  pupils  in  consolidated  schools  have  fifty  per  cent  more 
wealth  on  which  the  support  of  their  education  depends  than  pupils 
in  townships  with  district  schools,  more  than  twice  the  wealth  sup- 
porting the  education  of  the  city  child  and  three  times  the  wealth 
supporting  the  education  of  the  town  child.  The  consolidated 
schools  not  only  have  a  greater  wealth  per  capita  school  population, 
but  also  have  a  greater  variability,  while  the  town  schools  have  the 
lowest  amount  of  wealth  per  child  of  school  age,  and  also  have  the 
least  variability.  From  these  facts  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  the 
towns  are  burdened  much  more  for  the  proper  support  of  the  schools 
than  any  other  type  of  corporation  considered.  It  is  necessary 
in  comparing  the  relative  standing  of  the  different  types  of  cor- 
porations as  to  per  cent  of  total  tax  levied  by  the  state,  to  also 
consider  the  per  cent  of  the  total  tax  levied  by  local  authorities. 
While  the  state  tax  is  the  same  for  all  corporations  the  per  cent  of 
the  total  tax  levied  by  the  state  will  vary  according  to  the  amount 


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1432 
1912 

Township 
Consolidated 
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HOHU 


I20     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

of  the  county  and  local  levies.  The  higher  the  per  cent  of  the  total 
levy  levied  by  the  state,  the  lower  must  necessarily  be  the  local  tax. 
In  the  townships  with  district  schools  the  average  per  cent  of  the 
total  levy,  levied  by  the  state,  is  16.2  ;  while  the  local  levy  is  only  60.4 
per  cent  as  compared  with  the  state  levy  of  11.3  per  cent  in  towns, 
and  10. 1  per  cent  in  cities,  and  a  local  levy  of  71.5  per  cent  and  74.8 
per  cent  in  these  corporations,  respectively.  In  other  words,  towns 
and  cities  require  a  greater  amount  of  money  to  conduct  their  affairs 
than  do  townships  in  which  are  district,  and  townships  in  which  are 
consolidated  schools.  To  determine  the  generosity  of  any  corpora- 
tion in  the  support  of  its  schools,  it  is  necessary  to  compare  the 
amount  of  money  raised  for  the  school  purposes  with  the  amount 
of  money  raised  for  all  other  purposes  in  that  corporation.  The 
average  levy  in  townships  with  district  schools  for  the  general  busi- 
ness affairs  of  the  township  is  12.1  per  cent  with  a  variability  of  4.8 
per  cent  as  compared  with  an  average  levy  of  8.1  per  cent  with  a 
variability  of  2  per  cent  in  townships  with  consolidated  schools  and 
25  per  cent  in  towns  with  a  variability  of  10.8  per  cent  and  36  per 
cent  in  cities  with  a  variability  of  13.6  per  cent.  In  other  words,  it 
costs  a  township  with  district  schools  about  50  per  cent  more  to 
conduct  the  general  business  of  the  township  than  it  costs  the  town- 
ship with  consolidated  schools. 

When  we  compare  the  different  types  of  corporations  in  the 
amount  of  levies  made  for  school  purposes,  we  see  that  cities  which 
average  15.5  per  cent  of  the  total  levy  for  the  payment  of  teachers 
and  18.8  per  cent  for  special  school  funds,  spend  less,  relatively 
speaking,  for  the  support  of  their  schools  than  any  other  type  of 
corporation.  The  townships  with  district  schools  with  an  average 
of  17.9  per  cent  of  the  total  levy  for  the  payment  of  teachers  and 

20.2  per  cent  for  the  special  school  fund,  or  a  total  of  39.1  per  cent, 
rank  second.  Towns  which  devote  21.4  per  cent  of  the  total  levy 
for  the  payment  of  teachers  and  21.1  for  the  special  school  fund  or  a 
total  of  43.3  per  cent  rank  third,  while  townships  with  consolidated 
schools  with  20.4  per  cent  of  the  total  levy  for  the  payment  of 
teachers  and  35.9  per  cent  for  the  special  school  fund  or  a  total  of 

56.3  per  cent  of  the  total  levy  for  school  purposes,  are  most  liberal 
in  the  support  of  their  schools. 

If  the  assumption  that  consolidated  schools  are  located  in  town- 
ships with  better  public  highways  is  true,  it  is  because  these  town- 
ships have  better  highways  on  account  of  natural  conditions  than  on 


TABLE  LI 

Data  for  Showing  Relation  of  Wealth  per  Capita  and  Tax  Levied  for  Town- 
ship District  Schools 


Per  cent  the  levy 

Number  of 

Wealth  per 

Per  cent  the  state 

Per  cent  the  local 

for  tuition    and 
special     school 
fund  is  of  total 

township 

capita 

levy  is  of  total  levy 

levy  is  of  total  levy 

local  levy 

5 

$  971 

14.3 

61.4 

19.2 

18 

1171 

12.4 

60.5 

42.0 

11 

1411 

18.3 

53.4 

23.7 

8 

1641 

13.5 

64.3 

39.4 

6 

1677 

11.3 

69.0 

36.9 

2 

1835 

11.5 

65.7 

49.5 

7 

2205 

13.1 

67.8 

36.8 

8 

2208 

13.5 

59.7 

39.4 

Average 

1639  .8 

13.48 

62.72 

36.1 

15 

$6121 

18.9 

54.2 

38.5 

25 

5794 

16.3 

58.9 

30.7 

29 

5481 

17.9 

48.2 

54.6 

21 

4674 

21.3 

53.1 

35.4 

27 

4483 

17.7 

55.5 

41.0 

20 

4475 

16.5 

60.0 

34.8 

28 

4339 

19.7 

52.5 

37.2 

16 

4230 

16.1 

64.5 

23.5 

Average 

4949  .6 

18.1 

55.36 

36.9 

TABLE  LII 

Data  for  Showing  Relation  of  Wealth  per  Capita  and  Tax  Levied  for  Con- 
solidated Schools 


Per  cent  the  levy 

Number  of 
township 

Wealth  per  capita 

Per  cent  the  state  levy 
is  of  total  levy 

Percent  the  local  levy 
is  of  total  levy 

for  tuition  and 

special  school 

funds  is  of  total 

local  levy 

5 

$1909 

15.0 

64.0 

67.3 

14 

3459 

14.1 

65.8 

54.0 

4 

3735 

13.5 

69.9 

39.4 

8 

3820 

15.8 

65.0 

59.3 

7 

3892 

16.0 

71.0 

54.8 

15 

3938 

13.7 

66.8 

58.0 

Average 

3458  .8 

14.70 

67.10 

55.46 

11 

$7530 

19.9 

50.0 

75.04 

1! 

7178 

19.3 

51.5 

81.24 

2 

6041 

14.4 

61.8 

54.55 

16 

5801 

15.6 

56.3 

32.9 

9 

6117 

17.3 

56.5 

49.0 

1 

5001 

13.6 

61.1 

44.2 

Average 

6278 

15.0 

57  .95 

56.1 

[121] 


TABLE  LIII 

Data  for  Showing  Relation  of  Wealth  per  Capita  and  Tax  Levied  for  Town 

Schools ■ 


Per  cent  the  levy 

Number  of 
town 

Wealth  per  capita 

Per  cent  the  state  levy 
is  of  total  levy 

Per  cent  the  local 

levy  is  of  total 

levy 

for  tuition  and 

special  school 

funds  is  of  total 

local  levy 

2 

$1029 

16.0 

59.1 

55.6 

10 

1043 

21.2 

46.0 

24.7 

8 

1060 

9.9 

73.0 

48.6 

1 

1087 

9.4 

79.0 

37.4 

11 

1156 

11.8 

73.9 

45.5 

5 

1222 

8.4 

74.8 

46.1 

17 

1234 

9.9 

73.0 

42.7 

22 

1242 

12.1 

71.0 

54.0 

Average 

1133.1 

12.34 

68.72 

44.3 

12 

3027 

16.5 

60.0 

43.0 

6 

2419 

13.9 

66.0 

43.1 

14 

2256 

13.0 

71.3 

51.3 

18 

2293 

10.1 

75.6 

35.7 

4 

1941 

12.2 

71.3 

42.2 

3 

1905 

10.1 

70.8 

51.7 

25 

1819 

12.2 

70.4 

54.8 

23 

1654 

11.5 

72.5 

49.8 

Average 

2164.2 

12.44 

69.74 

46,45 

TABLE  LIV 

Data  for  Showing  Relation  of  Wealth  per  Capita  and  Tax  Levied  for  City 

Schools 


Per  cent  the  levy 

"WlllTlVlPT  rtf 

Per  cent  the  state 

Per  cent  the  local 

for  tuition  and 

city 

Wealth  per  capita 

levy  is  of  total 

levy  is  of  total 

special  school 

levy 

levy 

funds  is  of  total 

local  levy 

12 

$  765 

10.6 

75.0 

26.7 

6 

1101 

10.2 

70.5 

45.4 

3 

1111 

8.2 

70.3 

36.8 

11 

1274 

11.4 

70.9 

38.1 

4 

1385 

9.3 

73.1 

39.0 

22 

1413 

8.2 

80.1 

27.6 

23 

1415 

9.3 

75.0 

27.7 

18 

1437 

8.6 

65.3 

28.9 

Average 

1262  .6 

9.5 

72.5 

33.8 

5 

3025 

12.9 

74.4 

37.7 

7 

2782 

11.3 

72.5 

31.1 

21 

2456 

10.7 

77.5 

36.3 

20 

2378 

9.8 

75.4 

32.9 

25 

2288 

11.2 

71.7 

36.4 

1 

2264 

10.8 

74.2 

36.8 

10 

2260 

10.4 

72.2 

33.7 

9 

2188 

10.5 

75.1 

45.2 

Average 

2455 

11.2 

74.1 

35.5 

[122] 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      123 

account  of  the  amount  of  money  spent  for  the  building  and  upkeep, 
as  is  shown  by  the  amount  of  the  total  levies  devoted  to  the  building 
and  upkeep  of  roads.  We  find  that  27.2  per  cent  of  the  total  levy 
in  townships  with  consolidated  schools  is  for  the  purpose  of  building 
and  repairing  roads,  as  compared  with  47.3  per  cent  of  the  total  levy 
in  townships  with  district  schools  devoted  to  the  same  purpose.  It 
may  seem  a  little  strange  that  towns  with  an  average  of  19.6  per  cent 
of  the  total  levy,  devoted  to  roads  and  streets,  should  spend  more, 
relatively  speaking,  than  do  the  cities  which  devote  12.2  per  cent  of 
the  total  levy  for  this  purpose.  This  is  probably  due,  as  was  stated 
before,  to  the  fact  that  the  towns  are  located  in  communities  where 
there  are  a  great  many  macadam  roads,  so  that  the  amount  of  money 
devoted  to  this  purpose  is  relatively  high  on  account  of  the  limited 
wealth  of  these  corporations. 

It  is  generally  assumed  that  there  is  a  negative  correlation  be- 
tween the  wealth  per  capita  of  any  corporation  and  the  amount  of 
tax  levied  by  that  corporation  for  local  purposes,  that  is,  the  greater 
the  wealth  per  capita,  the  lower  the  local  tax  rate  and  vice  versa. 
In  order  to  determine  to  what  extent  this  assumption  is  true  the  fol- 
lowing tables  were  compiled. 

The  wealth  per  capita,  the  per  cent  of  the  total  levy  levied  by 
the  state  and  by  the  local  corporation  and  the  per  cent  of  the  total 
local  levy  levied  for  school  purposes  were  taken  for  eight  of  the 
corporations  with  least  wealth  per  capita  and  the  eight  corporations 
with  the  greatest  wealth  per  capita  in  townships  with  district  schools, 
and  the  average  in  each  item  for  each  group  determined.  In  a 
similar  way,  six  townships  with  consolidated  schools,  eight  towns, 
and  eight  cities  with  the  least  wealth  per  capita  and  six  townships, 
eight  towns,  and  eight  cities  with  the  greatest  wealth  per  capita  were 
selected,  and  the  average  in  each  item  of  each  group  determined. 

TABLE  LlV(a) 
Ratio  of  Wealthier  Group  to  Poorer  Group  of  Corporations  in  Wealth 
PER  Capita  and  Tax  Levies 


Wealth  per  capita 

Stole 

Local 

School 

Township 
Consolidated 
Town 
City 

3.02 
1.82 
1.72 
1.94 

1.33 
1.02 
1.00 
1.19 

.89 

.87 
1.02 
1.02 

1.02 
1.01 
1.05 
1.05 

TABLE  LV 

Amount  of  Money  Received  from  the  Various  Sources  for  Tuition  Fund  in 
Townships  with  District  Schools 


Indirect 

Direct 

Jii 

si 

all 

i 

II 

1 

i 

1 

1 

$  879 

$  39 

$  54 

$     14 

$  39 

$  1025 

$  1181 

$  2206 

2 

2911 

46 

114 

71 

3142 

3625 

6767 

3 

1170 

64 

41 

149 

1424 

1672 

3096 

4 

181.7 

34 

$271 

57 

48 

59 

2286 

3759 

6045 

5 

1011 

96 

151 

30 

32 

1320 

831 

2151 

6 

3540 

121 

122 

36 

1554 

5373 

3646 

9019 

7 

1039 

103 

204 

57 

104 

1507 

1653 

3160 

8 

1762 

100 

85 

187 

103 

2237 

2181 

4418 

9 

947 

24 

28 

10 

65 

1074 

1095 

2169 

10 

2299 

71 

112 

155 

2637 

3600 

6237 

11 

1619 

30 

335 

129 

385 

71 

2569 

695 

3264 

12 

1498 

114 

328 

118 

371 

171 

2600 

2175 

4775 

13 

1147 

136 

53 

229 

169 

1734 

3075 

4809 

14 

575 

116 

58 

33 

782 

1320 

2102 

15 

630 

66 

14 

83 

793 

1541 

2334 

16 

1673 

63 

64 

174 

1974 

3296 

5270 

17 

1097 

86 

68 

488 

264 

2003 

1819 

3822 

18 

1035 

46 

69 

23 

1173 

820 

1993 

19 

992 

26 

1049 

29 

223 

75 

2394 

1443 

3837 

20 

1669 

32 

55 

397 

2153 

2855 

5008 

21 

1182 

57 

22 

181 

1442 

2135 

3577 

22 

2381 

111 

48 

42 

32 

2614 

4649 

7263 

23 

2878 

276 

558 

204 

340 

4256 

8037 

12293 

24 

1178 

83 

72 

1333 

2418 

3751 

25 

595 

45 

43 

28 

49 

760 

2469 

3229 

26 

2824 

168 

75 

170 

3237 

5391 

8628 

27 

1666 

70 

435 

32 

143 

204 

2550 

3154 

5704 

28 

3174 

283 

233 

170 

386 

4705 

8565 

29 

1160 

411 

18 

55 

255 

1899 

3374 

5273 

30 

755 

118 

106 

47 

181 

1207 

1748 

29S5 

[124] 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      125 


TABLE  LVI 

Amount  of  Money  Received  from  the  Various  Sources  for  Tuitign  Fund  in 

Townships  with  Consolidated  Schools 


Indirect 

Direct 

III 

si 

II 

T3 
C 

-:2 

II 

1 

a 

1 

1 

11 

OH 

1 

$  1236 

$  56 

$  85 

$290 

$  123 

$  1790 

$  1207 

$  2997 

2 

642 

38 

31 

$  38 

190 

939 

1641 

2580 

3 

1607 

40 

85 

178 

144 

2054 

2313 

4367 

4 

1196 

31 

59 

24 

73 

1383 

1443 

2826 

5 

1086 

156 

50 

1163 

74 

2529 

2719 

5248 

6 

1879 

146 

42 

32 

129 

2228 

5887 

8115 

7 

1673 

53 

$  551 

75 

58 

2410 

4356 

6766 

8 

1498 

71 

1094 

206 

2869 

3639 

6508 

9 

844 

64 

55 

27 

167 

1157 

1927 

3084 

10 

11 

617 

256 

219 

16 

228 

136 

1472 

2585 

4057 

12 

228 

440 

168 

13 

183 

107 

1139 

2165 

3304 

13 

821 

73 

116 

51 

94 

137 

1292 

1901 

3193 

14 

568 

46 

80 

35 

321 

68 

1118 

1316 

2434 

15 

487 

51 

68 

30 

56 

48 

740 

1127 

1867 

16 

637 

159 

133 

11 

51 

99 

1090 

1734 

2824 

17 

977 

107 

62 

48 

143 

1337 

2144 

3481 

After  determining  the  average  of  each  group  with  the  least  wealth 
per  capita  and  the  average  of  each  group  with  the  greatest  wealth 
per  capita,  the  ratios  of  the  former  to  the  latter  were  found  and  are 
given  in  Table  Liv(a).  While  the  wealth  per  capita  of  the  second 
group  in  townships  with  district  schools  is  3.02  times  the  wealth  per 
capita  in  the  first  group,  the  ratio  of  the  state  levy  in  the  former  is 
only  1.33  times  that  of  the  latter  and  the  average  local  levy  in  the 
former  group  is  .89  per  cent  of  the  average  of  the  townships  with 
the  least  wealth  per  capita.  The  average  of  the  per  cent  of  the  total 
levy  for  school  purposes  in  the  group  of  townships  with  the  greatest 
wealth  per  capita  is  99  per  cent  of  that  for  the  group  of  townships 
with  the  least  wealth  per  capita,  which  goes  to  show  that  in  town- 
ships with  district  schools  there  is  little  correlation  between  the 
amount  of  the  tax  levy  and  the  ability  of  the  corporations  to  pay. 


126     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 


TABLE  LVII 

Amoun 

T  OF  Money  Received 

FROM  THE  Various  Sources  for  Tuition  Fund  in 

Towns 

Indirect 

Direct 

^"S 

111 

II 

1 

li 

1 

1 

1 

1 
1 

^•3 
OH 

1 

$  1544 

$47 

$  80 

$369 

$1007 

$  339 

$  3017 

$  2209 

$  5226 

2 

521 

11 

$  108 

36 

219 

16 

1280 

484 

1764 

3 

833 

78 

10 

31 

1115 

10 

2077 

1761 

3838 

4 

720 

14 

108 

23 

1140 

43 

2048 

2575 

4623 

5 

1499 

17 

51 

2376 

146 

4089 

2042 

6131 

6 

330 

23 

66 

18 

529 

40 

1006 

794 

1800 

7 

1412 

40 

80 

676 

51 

2259 

2554 

4813 

8 

1167 

40 

35 

982 

61 

2285 

1358 

3643 

9 

1295 

10 

33 

3269 

642 

5249 

2442 

7691 

10 

1098 

35 

231 

83 

72 

13 

1532 

167 

1699 

11 

1248 

33 

75 

2573 

95 

4024 

1887 

5911 

12 

716 

99 

101 

45 

360 

73 

1394 

1659 

3053 

13 

1254 

56 

86 

1116 

24 

2536 

2029 

4565 

14 

1015 

48 

1070 

2133 

2801 

4934 

15 

1291 

33 

1365 

39 

2029 

46 

4803 

2136 

6939 

'  16 

1988 

93 

40 

819 

63 

3003 

3211 

6214 

17 

985 

47 

44 

1824 

59 

2959 

1886 

4845 

18 

1276 

24 

40 

389 

52 

1781 

2024 

3805 

19 

1883 

90 

23 

28 

98 

2122 

5688 

7810 

20 

1825 

84 

41 

1729 

61 

3740 

3140 

6880 

21 

416 

19 

28 

752 

18 

1233 

985 

2218 

22 

1148 

14 

50 

1163 

74 

2449 

1872 

4321 

23 

1002 

19 

27 

1291 

110 

2449 

2348 

4797 

24 

665 

40 

32 

755 

511 

162 

2165 

1192 

3351 

25 

778 

69 

61 

2031 

65 

3004 

1647 

4651 

and  that  the  support  of  schools  is  determined  by  other  factors  than 
the  wealth  per  capita  school  population  in  these  communities.  What 
is  said  of  townships  with  district  schools  also  holds  true,  though  in 
a  somewhat  more  striking  way,  in  townships  with  consolidated 
schools.  Instead  of  the  relatively  smaller  amount  in  the  wealthier 
corporations  being  devoted  to  schools,  it  will  be  observed  that  there 
is  a  very  slight  increase  in  the  per  cent  devoted  to  them  in  these 
corporations.  The  same  condition  prevails  in  both  town  and  city 
schools.  These  tables  show  that  the  assumption,  that  the  wealthier 
the  community  the  lower  the  tax  rate,  is  not  well  founded.    While 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      127 


TABLE  LVIII 
Amount  op  Money  Received  from  the  Various  Sources  for  Tuition  Fund  in 

Cities 


Indirect 

Direct 

ii 

0 

^i 

n 

.2'gJ 

i 

ll 

j 

1. 

S8 

I 

1 

1 
1 

ll 

1 

$  3575 

$  66 

$108 

$4618 

$  259 

$  8626 

$  8690 

$17316 

2 
3 
4 

2976 

238 

67 

1830 

346 

5457 

6340 

11797 

11775 

31 

354 

4428 

2654 

19242 

18007 

37249 

5 

7372 

156 

630 

1548 

365 

10071 

10820 

20891 

6 

6234 

94 

$  72 

183 

901 

281 

7765 

7919 

15684 

7 

8975 

404 

621 

3777 

1913 

15690 

17483 

33173 

8 

2447 

63 

2588 

74 

1436 

344 

6952 

3643 

10595 

9 

8384 

100 

367 

1350 

470 

10671 

13181 

23852 

10 

5963 

352 

?88 

3598 

160 

10361 

16833 

27194 

11 

2895 

68 

602 

240 

1522 

110 

5437 

3968 

9405 

12 

17290 

328 

2574 

506 

999 

557 

22255 

3472 

25727 

13 

15875 

354 

831 

7649 

326 

25035 

22045 

47080 

14 

16081 

261 

3013 

287 

1572 

571 

21785 

16095 

37880 

15 

4407 

169 

867 

241 

1518 

314 

7516 

6168 

13684 

16 

5345 

250 

109 

5350 

11054 

11187 

22241 

17 

5080 

264 

267 

3438 

4567 

13616 

8950 

22566 

18 

3097 

140 

208 

3087 

148 

6680 

3356 

10036 

19 

5305 

252 

64 

2306 

726 

8653 

9815 

18468 

20 

r*. 

4415 

334 

291 

2920 

482 

8442 

9663 

18105 

21 

4283 

30 

99 

3580 

529 

8521 

10708 

19229 

22 

4326 

385 

280 

2031 

65 

7087 

7270 

14357 

L  23 

.  24 

25 

9558 

325 

295 

3874 

156 

14208 

13930 

28138 

23495 

120 

5912 

442 

1302 

2706 

33977 

30854 

64831 

there  may  be  a  very  slight  decrease  in  the  amount  of  levy  in  the 
wealthier  corporations,  it  is  much  safer  to  assume  that  the  total  tax 
levies  in  the  communities  is  determined  without  any  reference  to  the 
wealth  of  the  community  and  that  the  larger  amount  of  money  raised 
in  the  wealthier  communities  is  about  equally  distributed  among  the 
various  expenditures  of  that  corporation,  though  the  schools  receive 
a  little  more  liberal  support,  relatively  speaking,  in  the  corporations 
with  the  greater  wealth. 


TABLE  LIX 

Percentile  Distribution  of  Tuition  Receipts  for  Township  District 

Schools 


Indirect 

Direct 

III 

Wj'rt  to 

si 

1 

-3^ 

1 

1 
■^8 

3 
e2 

1 

1 

39.6 

1.8 

2.5 

.7 

1.8 

46.5 

53.5 

2 

43.1 

.7 

1.6 

1.0 

46.4 

53.6 

3 

38.0 

2.0 

1.3 

4.7 

46.0 

54.0 

4 

30.0 

.6 

4.5 

.9 

.8 

1.0 

37.7 

62.3 

5 

47.0 

4.4 

7.0 

1.4 

1.5 

61.4 

38.6 

6 

39.2 

1.3 

1.4 

.4 

17.3 

59.6 

40.4 

7 

32.8 

3.3 

6.5 

1.7 

3.3 

47.6 

52.4 

8 

39.9 

2.3 

1.9 

4.2 

2.3 

50.6 

49.4 

9 

43.5 

1.1 

1.2 

.4 

3.0 

49.2 

50.8 

10 

36.8 

1.1 

1.8 

2.5 

42.3 

57.7 

11 

49.6 

.9 

10.3 

4.0 

11.8 

2.2 

78.8 

21.2 

12 

31.4 

2.4 

6.9 

2.5 

7.8 

3.6 

54.5 

45.5 

13 

23.8 

2.8 

1.1 

4.8 

3.5 

36.0 

64.0 

14 

27.4 

5.5 

2.7 

1.6 

37.3 

62.7 

15 

27.1 

2.7 

.6 

3.6 

34.0 

66.0 

16 

31.7 

1.2 

1.2 

3.3 

37.4 

62.6 

17 

28.8 

2.2 

1.8 

12.7 

6.8 

52.3 

47.6 

18 

51.9 

2.3 

3.5 

1.1 

58.8 

41.2 

19 

25.7 

.7 

27.4 

.8 

5.8 

1.9 

62.3 

37.7 

20 

33.4 

.6 

1.1 

7.9 

43.0 

57.0 

21 

33.1 

1.6 

.66 

5.0 

40.4 

59.6 

22 

32.7 

1.5 

.7 

.6 

.4 

36.2 

63.8 

23 

23.5 

2.3 

4.6 

1.5 

2.8 

34.7 

65.3 

24 

31.4 

2.2 

1.8 

35.4 

64.6 

25 

18.5 

1.4 

1.3 

.9 

1.5 

23.6 

76.4 

26 

32.8 

1.9 

.9 

2.0 

37.6 

62.4 

27 

:9.3 

1.2 

7.6 

.6 

2.5 

3.5 

44.7 

55.3 

28 

37.2 

3.3 

2.7 

2.0 

45.2 

54.8 

29 

22.0 

7.8 

.3 

1.0 

4.9 

36.0 

64.0 

30 

25.6 

3.9 

3.6 

1.1 

6.1 

40.8 

59.2 

[128] 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      129 


TABLE  LX 

Percentile  Distribution  of  Tuition  Receipts  for  Township  Consolidated 

Schools 


Indirect 

Direct 

^;'3i 

i>  a 

fil 

Si 

"73 

n 

I 

il 

% 

.Is 

1^8 

3 
e2 

1 

1 

41.2 

1.9 

2.8 

9.7 

4.1 

59.7 

40.3 

2 

25.0 

1.4 

1.1 

1.4 

7.3 

36.2 

63.8 

3 

36.8 

.9 

1.9 

4.1 

3.3 

47.0 

53.0 

4 

42.2 

1.1 

2.1 

.8 

2.6 

48.8 

51.2 

5 

20.6 

2.9 

1.0 

22.2 

1.4 

48.0 

52.0 

6 

23.2 

1.8 

.5 

.4 

1.6 

27.5 

72.5 

7 

24.6 

.8 

8.2 

1.1 

.9 

35.6 

64.4 

6 

23.0 

1.1 

16.9 

3.2 

44.2 

55.8 

9 

27.4 

2.0 

1.1 

.9 

5.4 

37.4 

62.6 

10 

11 

15.3 

6.4 

5.4 

.4 

5.7 

3.4 

36.6 

63.4 

12 

6.9 

13.4 

5.1 

.4 

5.5 

3.2 

34.5 

65.5 

13 

25.8 

2.3 

3.6 

1.6 

2.9 

4.3 

40.5 

59.5 

14 

23.3 

1.9 

3.3 

1.4 

13.2 

2.7 

45.8 

54.2 

15 

26.1 

2.7 

3.1 

1.6 

3.0 

2.6 

39.7 

60.3 

16 

22.5 

5.6 

4.6 

.4 

1.8 

3.5 

38.4 

61.6 

17 

38.1 

3.1 

1.8 

1.3 

4.2 

38.5 

61.5 

Tuition  Receipts 

Thus  far  we  have  been  considering  the  support  given  to  schools 
as  compared  with  revenue  received  for  other  purposes.  If  a  local 
community  provided  all  the  funds  for  the  schools,  no  further 
analysis  of  tuition  receipts  would  be  necessary,  but  since  much  of 
the  money  received  for  the  payment  of  teachers'  salaries  is  derived 
from  other  sources,  and  since  this  money  is  distributed  on  a  very 
inequitable  basis,  an  investigation  may  lead  to  a  better  understand- 
ing of  the  problems  of  the  different  types  of  schools  under  considera- 
tion. It  has  already  been  shown  that  there  is  a  wide  variation  in  the 
wealth  per  capita  school  population  in  each  type  and  especially 
among  the  schools  of  the  different  types,  as  well  as  a  variation  in  the 
ratio  of  the  average  daily  attendance  to  the  total  number  of  chil- 
dren of  legal  school  age,  so  that  the  distribution  of  any  fund  on  a 
census  basis  is  inequitable,  fails  to  stimulate  local  effort  and  to  give 
relief  where  most  needed. 


130     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 


TABLE  LXI 
Percentile  Distribution  of  Tuition  Receipts  for  Town  Schools 


Indirect 

Direct 

!z;*s 

\\^ 

si 

111 

II 

1 

.3I 

H 

i^8 

1 

I 

1 

29.7 

.9 

1.5 

20.9 

19.2 

6.5 

57.8 

42.2 

2 

29.6 

.6 

6.2 

2.0 

12.4 

.9 

72.6 

27.4 

3 

21.7 

2.1 

.3 

.8 

28.8 

.3 

54.0 

46.0 

4 

15.6 

.3 

2.4 

.5 

24.6 

.9 

44.3 

55.7 

5 

24.5 

.3 

.8 

38.3 

2.4 

66.8 

33.2 

6 

IS  .3 

1.3 

3.7 

1.0 

29.4 

2.2 

55.9 

44.1 

7 

29  A 

.8 

1.7 

14.1 

1.0 

47.0 

53.0 

8 

32.0 

1.1 

1.0 

26.9 

1.6 

62.6 

37.4 

9 

16.8 

.1 

.4 

42.5 

8.4 

68.2 

31.8 

10 

64.5 

2.1 

13.6 

4.9 

4.3 

.8 

90.2 

9.8 

11 

21.1 

.5 

1.3 

43.5 

1.6 

68.0 

32.0 

12 

23.5 

3.2 

3.3 

1.5 

11.9 

2.4 

45.8 

54.2 

13 

27.3 

1.2 

1.9 

24.6 

.5 

55.5 

44.5 

14 

20.5 

1.0 

1.0 

21.7 

43.2 

56.8 

15 

18.6 

.5 

19.8 

.6 

28.1 

.7 

69.3 

30.7 

16 

32.1 

1.5 

.6 

13.2 

1.0 

48.4 

51.6 

17 

20.2 

.9 

.9 

37.8 

1.2 

61.0 

37.0 

18 

33.5 

.7 

1.0 

10.3 

1.4 

46.9 

53.1 

19 

24.1 

1.1 

.3 

.4 

1.3 

27.2 

72.8 

20 

26.5 

1.2 

.6 

25.2 

.9 

54.4 

45.6 

21 

18.8 

.9 

1.3 

33.8 

.8 

55.6 

44.4 

22 

9.6 

.3 

1.2 

27.2 

1.7 

56.7 

43.3 

23 

21.0 

.4 

.6 

27.0 

2.3 

51.0 

49.0 

24 

19.8 

1.2 

.9 

22.5 

15.2 

4.7 

64.3 

35.7 

25 

16.7 

1.5 

1.3 

43.7 

1.4 

64.6 

35.4 

Dr.  Cubberly  in  his  book,  School  Funds  and  Their  Apportion- 
ment, makes,  in  his  summary  of  conclusions,  the  following  state- 
ment :  "The  use  of  the  school  census  basis  for  the  apportionment  of 
funds  as  required  by  so  many  state  constitutions  and  as  used  in 
whole  or  in  part  by  thirty-eight  different  states,  though  an  im- 
provement over  the  *taxes-where-paid*  basis  is  nevertheless  one  of 
the  worst  and  unjust  bases  of  apportionment  we  have  in  use  and  its 
complete  abandonment  in  the  future  for  some  better  single  basis  or 
a  combination  basis  plan  is  greatly  to  be  desired."  After  presenting 
the  data  relative  to  this  point,  we  shall  attempt  to  show  that  a  dis- 
tribution of  forty  per  cent  of  the  state  revenue  on  the  teacher  basis 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      131 


TABLE  LXII 
Percentile  Distribution  of  Tuition  Receipts  for  City  Schools 


Indirect 

Direct 

1^ 
55-0 

6ta 

is 

II 

1 

li 

1 

Is 

1^8 

^ 

3 

1 

20.7 

.4 

.6 

26.6 

1.5 

49.8 

50.2 

2 
3 
4 

25.2 

2.0 

.6 

15.5 

2.9 

46.2 

53.8 

31.4 

.1 

.9 

11.9 

7.3 

51.6 

48.4 

5 

35.2 

.8 

3.0 

7.4 

1.7 

48.1 

51.9 

6 

39.3 

.6 

.5 

1.2 

5.8 

1.8 

49.2 

50.8 

7 

27.0 

1.2 

1.9 

11.4 

5.8 

47.3 

52.7 

8 

23.1 

.6 

24.4 

.7 

13.7 

3.3 

65.8 

34.2 

9 

35.2 

.4 

1.5 

5.8 

2.0 

44.9 

55.1 

10 

21.9 

1.4 

1.2 

13.3 

.7 

3S.5 

61.5 

11 

30.7 

.7 

6.4 

2.5 

16.3 

1.2 

57.8 

42.2 

12 

67.1 

1.3 

10.1 

2.0 

3.9 

2.2 

86.5 

13.5 

13 

33.7 

.8 

1.7 

16.2 

.6 

53.0 

47.0 

14 

42.7 

.7 

7.7 

.8 

4.1 

1.4 

57.4 

42.6 

15 

32.3 

1.2 

6.4 

1.7 

11.1 

2.3 

55.0 

45.0 

16 

23.8 

1.1 

.5 

24.0 

49.8 

50.2 

17 

23.8 

1.2 

1.2 

15.1 

20.1 

60.4 

39.6 

18 

30.8 

1.4 

2.1 

30.7 

1.6 

66.6 

33.4 

19 

28.7 

1.4 

.3 

12.4 

3.9 

46.7 

53.3 

20 

24.4 

1.8 

1.6 

16.2 

2.7 

46.7 

53.3 

21 

22.3 

.2 

.5 

18.7 

2.7 

44.4 

55.6 

22 

30.1 

2.7 

1.9 

14.2 

.4 

49.2 

50.8 

23 

34.0 

1.2 

1.1 

13.6 

.7 

50.5 

49.5 

24 

25 

36.3 

.2 

9.1 

.7 

2.0 

4.1 

52.4 

47.6 

and  sixty  per  cent  on  average  daily  attendance  basis  would  result 
beneficially  to  the  schools  in  greatest  need. 

For  convenience  we  have  classified  the  sources  of  revenue  for 
tuition  purposes  under  the  two  headings  :  Indirect,  and  Direct.  This 
division  is  more  for  convenience  and  is  somewhat  arbitrary,  as  will 
be  observed  when  we  present  the  sources  of  each  fund  classified 
under  the  indirect  receipts.  The  common  school  fund  which  is 
distributed  by  the  state  is  derived  from  two  sources :  interest  on  a 
permanent  endowment,  and  the  money  received  from  the  state  tax 
levy  of  $0,136  on  each  $100.00  of  property  and  $0.50  levy  on  each 
poll.    The, permanent  endowment  is  made  up  of  the  bequests  of  the 


132      A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

national  government  to  the  state  for  educational  purposes  and  cer- 
tain funds  reverting  to  this  endov/ment  in  accord  with  the  provisions 
of  the  state  constitution,  and  amounted  to  $8,846,825.10  in  191 1. 
The  interest  received  annually  from  this  permanent  fund  to- 
gether with  the  money  received  from  the  state  tax  levy  was  distri- 
buted semi-annually  among  the  counties  of  the  state  on  the  census 
basis.  The  legislature  of  1907  amended  the  law  then  in  force  by 
setting  aside  5.2  per  cent  of  this  fund  so  that  all  school  corporations 
levying  a  tuition  tax  of  $0.25  on  each  $100.00  should  receive  aid 
sufficient  to  maintain  a  six  months'  term  of  school,  and  all  corpo- 
rations levying  a  tuition  tax  of  $0.40  on  each  $100.00  should  receive 
aid  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  maintain  a  seven  months'  term  of 
school.  The  fund  for  distribution  in  191 1  amounted  to  $132,245.57. 
The  total  number  of  corporations  applying  for  aid  was  one  hundred 
eighty- four,  representing  thirty-five  counties.  The  total  demand 
made  by  these  corporations  amounted  to  $169,316.51.  The  addi- 
tional amount  required  to  meet  the  provision  of  the  law  was  met 
at  a  subsequent  date  by  a  special  appropriation.  The  amount  of 
money  received  from  this  special  fund  by  the  corporations  included 
in  this  study  is  given  under  "Special  State  Aid." 

Under  Congressional  Interest  is  given  the  amount  of  money  re- 
ceived in  interest  by  each  corporation  from  what  is  known  as  the 
congressional  school  fund.  The  United  States  government  in  the 
convention  of  1787  obligated  itself  to  the  encouragement  of  schools 
and  the  means  of  education.  The  Indiana  Territorial  Convention 
in  1816  ratified  this  policy  and  reserved  the  sixteenth  section  of  each 
congressional  township  for  the  use  of  schools.  A  little  later  a  second 
township  was  set  aside  for  the  same  purpose.  Some  townships  dis- 
posed of  this  section  when  land  was  very  cheap  so  that  little  was 
received,  while  others  retained  this  property  and  received  a  much 
larger  amount.  The  aggregate  amount  derived  from  the  sales  of 
these  lands  was  $2,476,297.00.  The  Constitution  of  1850  provided 
for  the  consolidation  of  this  congressional  fund  with  other  funds  to 
constitute  what  is  known  as  a  ''Common  School  Fund."  Complaints 
were  made  against  this  law,  since  some  communities  which  had  re- 
ceived much  greater  returns  would  be  deprived  of  a  part  of  that  sup- 
port if  distributed  on  the  census  basis,  so  that  the  matter  was 
brought  in  the  form  of  a  test  case  before  the  supreme  court.  The 
decision  of  the  court  was  such  as  to  require  the  distribution  to  be 
made  to  each  congressional  township  pro  rata  with  the  amount  of 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      133 

money  received  from  the  sale  of  the  school  land  of  that  township. 
In  order  to  secure  an  equal  distribution  of  funds,  a  law  was  passed 
requiring  the  county  auditors,  after  having  distributed  the  congres- 
sional funds  to  the  various  school  corporations  composing  a  con- 
gressional township,  to  so  distribute  the  common  school  fund  as  to 
bring  about  an  equal  distribution  in  all  corporations.  This  practi- 
cally places  the  distribution  upon  a  per  capita  basis  and  substantially 
carries  out  the  purpose  of  the  law  of  1852.  This  method  of  account- 
ing, however,  is  somewhat  complicated  and  the  state  department  has 
experienced  some  difficulties  with  certain  county  auditors  in  enforc- 
ing all  the  provisions  concerning  the  distribution  of  these  two  funds. 
These  facts  will  account  for  the  slight  variation  in  the  amounts  re- 
ceived per  capita  school  population  in  the  different  school  corpora- 
tions. 

The  amounts  given  under  "Liquor  License"  is  the  money  each 
corporation  received  for  the  licenses  to  liquor  dealers  within 
that  county.  Since  local  option  has  become  effective  in  a  great  num- 
ber of  counties,  many  of  the  corporations  received  no  money  from 
this  source.  The  law  requires  the  assessor  in  each  civil  corporation 
to  collect  at  the  time  of  making  the  assessment,  a  special  dog  tax 
trom  all  owners  of  dogs.  The  money  received  constitutes  what  is 
known  as  a  "Dog  Fund,"  which  is  used  to  pay  for  all  animals  killed 
or  maimed  by  dogs.  When  this  fund  in  any  township  in  the  state 
amounts  to  more  than  $100.00  on  the  first  Monday  in  March  of  each 
year,  the  surplus  must  be  reported  and  transferred  to  the  county 
treasurer  and  constitutes  what  is  known  as  the  "County  Dog  Fund," 
which  in  turn  is  distributed  among  the  townships  of  the  county  in 
which  the  orders  drawn  against  the  dog  fund  exceed  the  money  on 
hand  on  the  second  Monday  in  March  of  each  year.  Any  surplus 
left  from  the  county  dog  fund  after  provisions  have  been  made  for 
the  payment  of  all  live  stock  and  fowls  killed  or  maimed  in  the  town- 
ships of  the  county,  must  be  distributed  among  the  schools  of  the 
county  in  the  same  manner  as  the  common  school  revenue  of  the 
state  is  distributed. 

The  larger  part  of  the  money  tabulated  under  "Miscellaneous 
Sources"  is  received  from  the  interest  on  the  money  in  possession 
of  the  school  officials  in  each  corporation  and  from  tuition  received 
from  nonresident  pupils  attending  the  schools  of  that  corporation. 
The  amount  of  money  given  under  the  local  tax  is  the  money  re- 
ceived from  each  corporation  on  the  basis  of  the  tax  levy  made  by 


TABLE  LXIII 

Distribution  of  Tuition  Receipts  on  Basis  of  Amount  Received  per  Pupil  in 

Average  Daily  Attendance  in  Township  District  Schools 


Indirect 

Direct 

*S 

S 

<L 

If 

III 

1  " 

ll 

1 

1 

^1 
II 

1 

1. 

1 

1 
h4 

11 

1 

$  6.97 

$0.31 

$0.43 

$0.11 

$0.31 

$  8.14 

$  9.37 

$17.51 

2 

5.96 

.09 

.23 

.15 

6.45 

7.42 

13.87 

3 

7.04 

.39 

.25 

.90 

8.59 

10.06 

18.65 

4 

8.77 

.16 

$  1.31 

.28 

.23 

.29 

11.04 

18.16 

29.20 

5 

8.15 

.76 

1.22 

.24 

.26 

10 .6i 

6.70 

17.34 

6 

7.45 

.25 

.26 

.07 

3.27 

11.31 

7.67 

18.98 

7 

8.24 

.82 

1.62 

.45 

.83 

11.95 

12.30 

24.25 

8 

9.95 

.56 

.47 

1.05 

.58 

12.61 

12.32 

24.93 

9 

7.32 

.19 

.23 

.08 

.50 

8.32 

8.49 

16.81 

10 

6.74 

.21 

.33 

.46 

7.74 

10.55 

18.29 

11 

12.83 

.24 

2.65 

1.03 

3.06 

.56 

20.38 

5.52 

25.90 

12 

9.13 

.70 

2.00 

.72 

2.26 

1.04 

15.85 

13.26 

29.11 

13 

6.23 

.74 

.29 

1.24 

.92 

9.42 

16.71 

26.13 

14 

7.87 

1.58 

.80 

.45 

10.70 

18.09 

28.79 

15 

8.29 

.86 

.18 

1.10 

10.43 

20.28 

30.71 

16 

8.75 

.33 

.34 

.91 

10.34 

17.25 

27.59 

17 

5.29 

.42 

.33 

2.36 

1.27 

9.68 

8.78 

18.46 

18 

6.90 

.31 

.46 

.15 

7.82 

5.46 

13.28 

19 

10.02 

.26 

10.60 

.29 

2.25 

.76 

24.18 

14.57 

38.75 

20 

15.17 

.29 

.50 

3.61 

19.57 

25.95 

45.52 

21 

5.62 

.27 

.10 

.87 

6.87 

10.16 

17.03 

22 

9.33 

.43 

.19 

.17 

.13 

10.25 

18.23 

28.48 

23 

6.96 

.67 

1.35 

.50 

.82 

10.30 

19.46 

29.76 

24 

7.80 

.55 

.48 

8.83 

16.01 

24.84 

25 

5.08 

.38 

.37 

.24 

.42 

6.49 

21.10 

27.59 

26 

7.59 

.45 

.20 

.46 

8.70 

14.49 

23.19 

27 

7.94 

.33 

2.09 

.16 

.69 

.99 

12.20 

15.09 

27.29 

28 

9.28 

.83 

.68 

.49 

11.58 

13.46 

25.04 

29 

5.85 

2.08 

.09 

.28 

1.28 

9.58 

17.04 

26.62 

30 

6.99 

1.09 

.98 

.43 

1.68 

11.18 

16.18 

27.36 

[134] 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      135 


TABLE  LXIV 

Distribution  of  Tuition  Receipts  on  Basis  of  Amount  Received  per  Pupil  in 
Average  Daily  Attendance  in  Township  Consolidated  Schools 


Indirect 

Direct 

0 

1 

, 

, 

75 

'3 

^ 

-^ 

1 

k 

ll 

;s 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1^ 

1 

1 

1 

1 

6.86 

.31 

.47 

1.62 

.69 

9.95 

6.70 

16.65 

2 

6.29 

.37 

.30 

.37 

1.87 

9.20 

16.09 

25.29 

3 

5.36 

.13 

.28 

.59 

.48 

6.85 

7.71 

14.56 

4 

5.95 

.14 

.28 

.11 

.33 

6.82 

7.14 

13.96 

5 

5.92 

.86 

.27 

6.37 

.41 

13.83 

14.85 

28.68 

6 

5.71 

.45 

.13 

.10 

.39 

6.80 

17.98 

24.78 

7 

5.72 

.18 

1.89 

.26 

.20 

8.25 

14.92 

23.17 

8 

4.66 

.22 

3.41 

.65 

8.94 

11.33 

20.27 

9 

5.51 

.42 

.34 

.18 

1.10 

7.56 

12.59 

20.15 

10 

11 

3.79 

1.58 

1.36 

.10 

1.41 

.84 

9.09 

15.95 

25.04 

12 

1.93 

3.72 

1.42 

.11 

1.55 

.91 

9.65 

18.35 

28.00 

13 

5.66 

.50 

.80 

.35 

.65 

.95 

8.91 

13.11 

22.02 

14 

4.24 

.34 

.60 

.26 

2.40 

.51 

8.34 

9.82 

18.16 

15 

6.59 

.69 

.92 

.40 

.75 

.65 

10.00 

15.23 

25.23 

16 

'     5.39 

1.34 

1.13 

.09 

.43 

.84 

9.24 

14.69 

23.93 

17 

6.34 

.70 

.40 

.31 

.93 

8.68 

13.92 

22.60 

the  local  officials.  The  total  amounts  received  from  each  source  are 
given  in  Tables  lv,  lvi,  lvii,  and  lviii.  The  ratio  of  the  amount 
under  each  item  to  the  total  tuition  receipts  are  given  in  Tables  lix, 
LX,  Lxi,  and  lxii.  While  the  amounts  received  from  each  source 
per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  in  each  corporation  are  given 
in  Tables  lxiii,  lxiv,  lxv,  and  lxvi. 

Little  is  to  be  derived  from  the  tables  giving  the  total  amounts, 
since  so  many  variable  elements  have  to  be  considered,  but  when  we 
turn  to  the  percentile  distribution,  we  observe  that  there  is  a  wide 
variation  in  the  relative  amount  received  from  the  indirect  sources, 
among  the  corporations  in  each  type  as  well  as  a  variation  among 
schools  of  the  different  types. 

This  is  illustrated  by  township  number  eleven,  which  received 
78.8  per  cent  of  the  money  paid  teachers  from  the  indirect  sources 
and  only  21.2  per  cent  from  the  local  levy,  while  township  number 


136     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 


TABLE  LXV 

Distribution  of  Tuition  Receipts  on  Basis  of  Amount  Received  per  Pupil  in 

Average  Daily  Attendance  in  Town  Schools 


Indirect 

Direct 

*ts 

73, 

1 

1 

i 

3 

8 

2 
0 

0 

1 

^2; 

Jl 

cS.S 

i 

i 

1 

1 

c 

1 

•0 

1 

0 

1 

%  5.69 

$  .17 

$   .30 

$3.70 

$1.25 

$11.13 

$  8.15 

$19  .28 

2 

6.20 

.13 

$  1.29 

.42 

$4.39 

2.60 

.19 

15.24 

5.76 

21.00 

3 

5.07 

.48 

.06 

.19 

6.80 

.06 

12.67 

10.73 

23.40 

4 

4.23 

.08 

.64 

.14 

6.70 

.25 

12.05 

15.14 

27.19 

5 

4.72 

.05 

.16 

7.45 

.46 

12.82 

6.40 

19.22 

6 

3.58 

.25 

.72 

.20 

5.75 

.43 

10.93 

8.63 

19.56 

7 

4.90 

.14 

.28 

2.35 

.18 

7.84 

8.87 

16.71 

8 

5.77 

.20 

.17 

4.86 

.30 

11.31 

6.72 

18.03 

9 

3.63 

.03 

.09 

9.18 

1.81 

14.74 

6.86 

21.60 

10 

7.73 

.25 

1.62 

.59 

.50 

.09 

11.78 

1.17 

11.95 

11 

4.14 

.11 

.25 

8.56 

.31 

13.37 

6.26 

19.63 

12 

3.72 

.51 

.52 

.24 

1.88 

.38 

7.24 

8.64 

15.90 

13 

5.67 

.25 

.39 

5.04 

.11 

11.47 

9.18 

20.65 

14 

5.26 

.25 

5.55 

10.96 

14.61 

25.57 

15 

4.19 

.11 

4.44 

.13 

6.60 

.15 

15.63 

6.90 

22.53 

16 

4.12 

.19 

.08 

1.70 

.13 

6.23 

6.66 

12.89 

17 

2.94 

.14 

.13 

5.40 

.17 

8.78 

5.59 

14.37 

18 

3.31 

.06 

.10 

1.01 

.14 

4.62 

5.26 

9.88 

19 

7.94 

.38 

.10 

.12 

.41 

8.95 

24.00 

32.95 

20 

4.97 

.23 

.11 

4.71 

.17 

10.19 

8.55 

18.74 

21 

3.81 

.18 

.26 

6.89 

.16 

11.30 

9.04 

20.34 

22 

4.63 

.06 

.20 

4.69 

.30 

9.88 

7.54 

17.42 

23 

3.63 

.07 

.10 

4.67 

.40 

8.87 

8.51 

17.38 

24 

3.55 

.21 

.17 

4.04 

2.74 

.87 

11.58 

6.37 

17.95 

25 

3.28 

.29 

.26 

8.58 

.26 

12.67 

6.95 

19.62 

twenty-five  has  the  reverse  conditions,  receiving  23.6  per  cent  from 
the  indirect  and  76.4  per  cent  from  direct  sources.  Much  more 
highly  centralized  tendencies  are  observed  in  tov^nships  vi^ith  con- 
solidated than  in  townships  with  district  schools.  The  largest  per 
cent  of  money  received  by  any  township  with  consolidated  schools 
was  received  by  township  number  one,  which  received  59.7  per 
cent  from  indirect  sources  and  40.3  per  cent  from  local  taxes, 
while  township  number  six  received  only  27.5  per  cent  from  indirect 
sources  and  72.5  per  cent  from  direct  tax.    It  will  also  be  observed 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      137 


TABLE  LXVT 

Distribution  of  Tuition  Receipts  on  Basis  of  Amount  Received  per  Pupil  in 

Average  Daily  Attendance  in  City  Schools 


Indirect 


"0 

1 

1 

, 

J 

1 

p 

't 

'z 

tl 

■i 

Direct 


$  5.10 

$   .09 

5.97 

.48 

6.72 

.02 

7.10 

.15 

6.72 

.10 

$     .08 

6.62 

.30 

7.13 

.18 

7.58 

6.44 

.07 

6.76 

.40 

7.80 

.18 

1.64 

12.28 

.23 

1.82 

7.24 

.16 

13.62 

.22 

2.56 

7.79 

.30 

1.52 

6.00 

.27 

5.79 

.30 

6.24 

.28 

5.32 

.25 

5.67 

.43 

4.68 

.03 

4.82 

.43 

7.12 

.24 

9.50 

.04 

2.40 

.15 
.13 

.20 
.61 

.20 
.46 
.22 
.29 

.ZZ 

.65 
.37 
.38 
.24 
.42 

.11 
.31 
.42 
.06 
.37 

.11 
.32 
.23 

.18 


$6.56 
3.68 

2.54 
1.50 

.97 
2.78 
4.19 
1.04 
4.09 

4.15 
.70 
3.50 
1.35 
2.67 

6.03 
3.90 
6.22 
2.31 
3.73 

3.92 
2.26 
2.^9 

.53 


$   .37 
.70 

1.52 
.35 

.30 

1.48 

1.07 

.37 

.18 

.30 
.40 
.15 

.48 

.55 


5.40 
.30 
.73 
.62 

.58 
.07 
.12 

1.10 


$12  .27 
10.96 

11.01 
9.61 

8.37 
11.64 
20.37 

8.22 
11.77 

14.73 
15.80 
11.42 

18.48 
13.25 

12.43 
15.51 
13.47 
8.68 
10.82 

9.32 

7.93 

20.60 

14.15 


$12  .36 
12.73 

10.36 
10.50 

8.53 
12.97 
10.61 
10.19 
19.13 

9.67 

2.47 

10.06 

12.80 

10.84 

12.47 

10.20 

6.76 

9.82 

12.39 

11.71 

8.10 

10.38 

12.09 


$24  .63 
23.69 

21.37 
20.11 

16.90 
24.61 
30.98 
18.41 
30.90 

24.40 
18.27 
21.48 
31.28 
24.09 

24.90 
25.71 
20.23 
18.50 
23.21 

21.03 
16.03 
20.98 

26.24 


that  townships  with  consoUdated  schools  received  a  greater  amount 
from  transfers  than  did  schools  in  townships  with  district  schools. 
There  is  also  a  very  wide  variation  in  the  amount  received  from  this 
source  by  consolidated  schools,  varying  from  nothing  to  approxi- 
mately one-fourth  of  the  total  tuition  receipts.  The  widest  variation 
with  reference  to  amount  received  from  transfers  will  be  observed 
in  cases  of  town  schools  which  vary  from  less  than  one  per  cent  in 
town  number  nineteen  to  43.7  per  cent  in  town  number  twenty-five. 
The  greatest  variation  in  receipts  in  city  schools  is  found  in  the 


u 


—-a 


.11 


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anw^n^ 


33BJ3AV 


a^V^nf) 


aSi^jaAV 


aijvrenO 


spunj  Sui 

Aiaoajsaori 

* -uiodjda 

joj  aSBjaAv 


suop 

BJOdlOD  \[V 

JOJ  aSBjaAy 


pre  auiAiao 
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JO}  aSBjaAy 


suop 
■BjodjoD  lie 
joj  aSBjaAv 


anv^nO 


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anwBti^ 


spun|3m 

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joj  aSuiaAv 


suop 

BJOdjOD  \\B 

JOJ  aSBjaAv 


a^iVBTi^ 


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HUHU 


[138] 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      139 

amounts  received  from  liquor  licenses,  though  more  than  half  the 
schools  received  no  money  from  this  source.  City  number  eight 
received  one- fourth  of  the  money  for  support  of  teachers  from 
liquor  licenses. 

The  central  tendencies  and  variabilities  are  given  in  Table  lxvii. 
It  is  usually  assumed  that  cities  receive  a  much  larger  per  cent  of 
their  total  tuition  revenues  from  common  school  funds  than  do  any 
other  type  of  schools,  but  statistics  show  that  the  township  with 
district  schools,  which  receives  32.8  per  cent,  with  a  variability  of 
6.1  per  cent,  from  the  common  school  fund,  ranks  first,  while  cities 
with  an  average  of  32.6  per  cent  with  a  variability  of  5.1  per  cent 
rank  second.  Consolidated  schools  with  a  central  tendency  of  25 
per  cent,  with  a  variability  of  7.1  per  cent,  rank  third,  while  towns 
with  a  central  tendency  of  23.1  and  a  variability  of  5.1  per  cent, 
receive  the  lowest  amount,  relatively  speaking,  from  the  state.  Con- 
solidated schools  rank  first  in  the  relative  amount  received  from  the 
congressional  fund,  while  townships  with  district  schools  rank  sec- 
ond. If  school  officials  equalize  the  amount  of  money  received  from 
these  two  sources,  the  ratio  of  the  amount  received  fails  to  indicate 
it  It  is  ordinarily  assumed  that  towns  would  rank  second  in  the 
relative  amount  of  money  received  from  liquor  licenses  but  our 
statistics  show  that  this  is  not  the  case.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
local  option  has  eliminated  practically  all  saloons  from  the  smaller 
centers  of  population  and  that  a  relatively  larger  number  of  the  total 
school  population  of  towns  is  enrolled  in  the  schools. 

The  report  of  the  city  superintendents  for  1911-1912  shows  that 
the  larger  per  cent  of  the  deficiencies  was  paid  to  townships  in  coun- 
ties in  which  there  are  no  consolidated  schools.  Of  all  the  corpora- 
tions included  in  this  study,  townships  with  consolidated  schools  and 
towns  were  the  only  ones  receiving  special  state  aid.  A  relatively 
larger  number  of  townships  with  districts  schools  would  show  that 
the  greater  amount  of  money  is  paid  to  schools  of  this  type.  Few 
townships  with  consolidated  schools  find  it  necessary  to  call  for 
state  aid  since  the  wealth  per  capita  in  these  townships  is  so  large 
that  when  the  minimum  levy  required  for  the  state  aid,  is  made 
there  is  sufficient  money  to  pay  the  salaries  of  all  teachers  in  that 
corporation.  It  would  be  the  exceptional  city  that  would  find  it  pos- 
sible to  avail  itself  of  this  special  aid.  The  miscellaneous  receipts, 
under  the  provision  of  the  law,  show  that  school  officials  of  consoli- 
dated schools  receive  greater  returns  for  the  money  they  have  in 


I40      A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

their  possession  when  not  in  use  for  school  purposes.  Notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  the  towns  receive  the  lowest  amount,  rela- 
tively speaking,  from  the  common  school  fund,  they  rank  first  in  the 
total  amount  received  from  indirect  sources.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  one- fourth  of  the  total  income  for  the  payment  of  teachers 
is  received  from  transfers,  as  compared  with  1 1.7  per  cent  in  city 
schools,  4.2  per  cent  in  townships  with  district  schools.  City  schools 
which  receive  52.5  per  cent  from  indirect  sources  rank  second,  while 
townships  with  consolidated  schools,  receiving  40  per  cent,  rank 
fourth.  Naturally,  the  relative  amounts  received  from  local  taxes, 
vary  inversely  as  the  amounts  received  from  indirect  sources.  It 
will  also  be  observed  that  the  variability  in  the  amount  received  from 
both  indirect  and  local  taxes  is  greatest  in  the  town  schools,  while 
townships  with  district  schools  rank  second. 

While  there  is  a  great  variation  in  the  amount  received  from  the 
common  school  fund  by  the  different  school  corporations  as  com- 
pared with  the  amount  received  from  other  sources,  it  is  even  more 
pronounced  when  we  compare  the  amount  received  per  pupil  in  aver- 
age daily  attendance.  By  referring  to  Tables  lxiii,  lxiv,  lxv, 
and  Lxvi  and  the  summary  of  which  is  given  in  Table  lxviii, 
the  effects  of  the  distribution  of  school  funds  on  the  inequitable 
census  basis  will  be  seen.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  state 
distributed  approximately  $4.00  per  capita  school  population,  town- 
ship number  twenty  received  as  much  as  $15.17  per  pupil  in  average 
daily  attendance,  while  township  twenty-five  received  only  $5.08. 
A  similar  variation  may  be  observed  in  townships  with  consolidated 
schools ;  for  example,  township  number  one  received  $6.86  per  pupil 
in  average  daily  attendance  while  township  number  twelve  received 
only  $1.93  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance.  In  town  schools, 
number  nineteen  received  $7.94  per  pupil  while  number  seventeen 
received  only  $2.94  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance.  The  same 
inequality  is  found  among  city  schools.  City  number  fourteen  re- 
ceived $13.62  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  while  number 
twenty-one  received  only  $4.68.  The  total  amounts  received  from 
indirect  sources  show  the  same  variations  in  a  more  pronounced 
form.  The  reverse  conditions  will  be  found  in  the  amounts  received 
from  local  taxes. 

By  referring  to  Table  lxviii  it  will  be  observed  that  townships 
with  district  schools  which  receive  on  an  average  $7.90,  with  a  varia- 
bility of  $0.80,  rank  first  in  the  amount  received  from  the  state 


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[141] 


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[I4S] 


146     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

while  cities  which  receive  an  average  of  $7.41  per  pupil  in  aver- 
age daily  attendance  with  a  variability  of  $0.96  rank  second  and 
that  consolidated  schools  receiving  an  average  of  $5.39,  and  a  varia- 
bility of  $0.84  rank  third,  while  towns  receiving  only  $4.50  per 
pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  receive  the  lowest  amount  from 
the  common  school  fund.  While  the  towns  rank  first  in  the  relative 
total  amount  received  from  indirect  sources,  it  will  be  observed 
that  they  rank  third  in  the  actual  amount  received  per  pupil  in  aver- 
age daily  attendance,  the  city  schools  ranking  first,  and  townships 
with  district  schools  ranking  second.  Only  one  explanation  can  be 
offered  for  this  situation,  and  that  is  that  towns  find  it  necessary  to 
run  their  schools  on  a  much  more  economical  basis  than  do  the 
schools  of  other  corporations.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  town- 
ships continue  in  session  a  much  shorter  period  than  schools  in  the 
other  types  of  corporations,  the  average  cost  per  pupil  in  daily 
attendance  for  tuition  is  greater  than  that  in  any  other  corporation. 
Townships  with  district  schools  pay  an  average  of  $24.10  per  pupil, 
as  compared  with  $22.75  i^  city  schools,  $21.45  i^  consolidated 
schools  and  $18.73  i^  town  schools.  In  other  words,  it  is  more 
economical  from  the  standpoint  of  the  amount  of  money  paid  teach- 
ers, to  consolidate  the  district  schools,  but  not  so  economical  as  to 
provide  school  facilities  in  the  natural  centers  of  population.  One 
or  two  factors,  however,  have  not  been  considered  when  comparing 
the  amount  of  money  received  from  the  common  school  fund  by  the 
different  types  of  corporations  and  the  relative  amount  received  from 
indirect  and  direct  sources.  One  of  the  reasons  for  the  great  varia- 
tion in  the  amount  received  from  the  common  school  fund,  which 
in  turn  will  affect  the  total  amount  received  from  indirect  sources, 
is  that  a  great  number  of  pupils  are  transferred  to  a  corporation 
which  has  on  the  census  basis  a  relatively  low  school  population. 
Thus,  towns  receiving  a  great  number  of  pupils  from  other  corpora- 
tions for  whom  transfers  are  provided,  receive  only  a  small  amount 
from  the  state  fund  on  account  of  their  very  limited  number  of 
pupils  of  legal  school  age  in  that  corporation.  Another  element 
which  must  be  considered  is  the  relative  wealth  per  capita.  In  order 
to  determine  to  what  extent  these  factors  enter  into  the  situation  and 
the  effect  of  the  application  of  a  more  scientific  method  of  distribu- 
tion. Tables  lxix,  lxx,  lxxi,  and  lxxii  have  been  compiled. 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      147 

Eight  townships  were  selected  in  the  order  of  the  amount  re- 
ceived per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  from  the  common 
school  fund,  beginning  with  the  highest,  and  a  second  group  of  eight 
townships  were  selected  on  the  same  basis,  except  beginning  with  the 
township  receiving  the  lowest  amount  per  pupil  in  average  daily 
attendance  from  the  common  school  fund.  The  ratio  of  the  amount 
received  per  pupil  from  the  common  school  fund  to  the  total  tuition 
receipts,  the  tax  levy  for  tuition  purposes,  wealth  per  capita,  school 
population,  number  of  teachers  employed,  and  pupils  in  average 
daily  attendance  in  each  corporation,  were  taken  from  the  preced- 
ing tables  and  the  average  for  each  group  in  each  of  these  items 
determined.  In  like  manner  six  townships  with  consolidated  schools 
receiving  the  greatest  amounts  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance 
and  the  six  townships  receiving  the  lowest  amounts  per  pupil,  were 
selected  and  in  the  same  way  sixteen  towns  and  sixteen  cities  were 
selected.  In  order  to  determine  the  effect  of  the  distribution  of  the 
money  received  from  the  common  school  fund  on  the  basis  advo- 
cated by  Dr.  Cubberly  and  which  is  now  employed  in  one  or  two 
states,  the  total  amount  received  from  the  common  school  fund,  the 
total  number  of  pupils  in  average  daily  attendance  and  the  total 
number  of  teachers  employed  in  these  selected  groups  of  cor- 
porations were  determined.  Forty  per  cent  of  the  total  amount  re- 
ceived from  the  common  school  fund  was  divided  by  the  total  num- 
ber of  teachers  employed,  thus  determining  the  distribution  of  the 
forty  per  cent  of  the  total  amount  received  on  this  basis.  The  re- 
maining sixty  per  cent  of  the  common  school  fund  received  in  these 
corporations  was  divided  by  the  total  number  of  pupils  in  average 
daily  attendance,  which  gave  the  amount  received  per  pupil  on  the 
average  daily  attendance  basis.  The  amount  of  money  received  per 
teacher  multiplied  by  the  number  of  teachers  employed  plus  the 
amount  received  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  multiplied  by 
the  number  of  pupils  gave  the  total  amount  received  on  the  proposed 
basis  of  distribution.  In  order  to  make  a  comparison  with  the 
amounts  received  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  on  the  old 
basis,  this  total  amount  was  divided  by  the  number  of  pupils  in  aver- 
age daily  attendance  which  in  turn  gave  the  amount  received  per 
pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  on  this  combination  basis.  In 
like  manner,  for  purposes  of  comparison,  the  ratio  of  the  total 
amoum  received  on  this  combination  basis  to  the  total  amount 
received    for   tuition    purposes,    assuming   that    each    corporation 


148     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

modified  its  local  levy  so  that  the  total  amount  would  not  be 
altered  by  the  change  in  basis  of  distribution,  was  determined  and 
given  in  the  last  column  of  these  tables.  A  summary  of  these  re- 
sults is  given  in  Table  lxxiii. 

The  application  of  the  combination  basis  of  distribution  not 
only  makes  a  more  equitable  distribution  among  the  schools  of  the 
same  type,  but  also  equalizes  the  distribution  among  the  schools  of 
different  types,  as  well  as  to  give  assistance  to  the  schools  in  great- 
est need  and  to  stimulate  consolidation  of  rural  schools.  The  eight 
townships  with  district  schools  receiving  a  larger  amount  from  the 


TABLE  LXXIII 

Summary  of  the  Results  if  the  Common  School  Fund  were  Distributed  on 
Teacher- Average-Daily-Attendance  Basis 


Average  total 

amount  received 

from  common 

school  fund 


Average  amount 
received  per  pupil 
in  daily  attend- 
ance from  com- 
mon school  fund 


Ratio  of  re- 
ceipts from 

common 
school  fund 
to  total  tui- 
tion receipts 


II 


Township 


j  Higher 
(  Lower 


ConsoUdated  |  ^^^^ 


Town 


City 


j  Higher 
\  Lower 

j  Higher 
(  Lower 


\  1871 
1428 

937 
1026 

1164 
881 

12122 
4413 


$1554 
1585 

1009 
1334 

1339 
1568 

8428 
5074 


$10 .05 
5.96 

6.33 
4.23 

6.17 
3.45 

9.04 

5.42 


$8.10 
6.78 

7.03 
7.34 

7.07 
6.08 

6.42 
6.20 


32.7 
32.3 

32.2 
21.0 

31.2 
21.2 

39.0 
25.0 


27.3 
36.0 

34.1 
33.6 

35.0 
38.3 

27.9 

28.5 


.208 
.25 

.26 

.25 

.435 
.435 

.279 
.285 


$3328 
3478 

4102 
5297 

1397 
2198 

1669 
1710 


common  school  fund  received,  on  the  old  basis,  an  average  of 
$1,871.00,  while  the  eight  townships  receiving  the  lowest  amount 
averaged  $1,428.00;  but  when  we  apply  the  combination  basis  of 
distribution,  we  find  that  the  first  group  receives  on  an  average  a 
smaller  amount  than  the  latter  group.  When  we  consider  the 
amount  received  per  pupil,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  upper  a^roup 
of  townships  received  $1.95  per  pupil  less  on  the  combination  basis 
than  on  the  census  basis,  while  the  lower  group  received  $0.82  more 
per  pupil  on  the  combination  basis  of  distribution  than  on  the  census 
basis.     The  ratio  of  the  total  amount  received  from  the  common 


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[149] 


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[150] 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      151 

school  fund  to  the  total  amount  of  tuition  receipts  in  the  two 
groups  on  the  old  basis  are  approximately  the  same,  while  on  the 
combination  basis  the  lower  group  with  a  higher  tax  levy  will  receive 
a  relatively  larger  amount  from  the  state ;  thus  in  every  particular 
the  application  of  the  combination  basis  to  the  township  district 
schools  will  give  the  greater  amount  where  there  is  the  greatest 
local  effort  and  the  greatest  need.  The  application  of  this  basis  of 
distribution  to  townships  with  consolidated  schools  would  give  a 
greater  amount  of  money,  not  only  to  the  lower  group,  but  to  the 
higher  as  well.  The  lower  group  would  receive  the  greater  amount 
and  would  practically  equalize  the  ratio  of  the  amount  received  from 
the  common  school  fund  to  the  total  tuition  receipts,  with  that 
received  by  the  upper  group.  The  greatest  change  would  be  ob- 
served in  the  case  of  the  town  schools.  Since  the  town  schools  with 
their  limited  wealth  per  capita  and  high  tax  levy  for  tuition  pur- 
poses, receiving  relatively  smaller  amounts  from  the  common  school 
fund  on  account  of  the  limited  number  of  pupils  within  these  corpo- 
rations, would  receive  much  more  money  if  distribution  was  made 
on  the  combination  basis  than  any  other  type  of  school.  The 
amount  received  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance,  however,  does 
not  equal  the  amount  received  in  the  townships  with  district  schools 
and  the  townships  with  consolidated  schools.  The  great  variation 
in  the  amount  received  by  the  upper  group  as  compared  with  the 
amount  received  by  the  lower  group  on  the  basis  would,  also,  be 
eliminated.  Naturally,  it  is  the  larger  cities  with  their  larger  number 
of  pupils  and  greater  wealth  per  capita  which  would  suffer  on  this 
new  basis  for  the  benefits  received  by  the  smaller  cities  and  towns, 
yet  the  amount  received  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  by  the 
lower  group  on  the  combination  basis  would  be  greater  than  now 
received  on  the  old  census  basis,  while  the  amount  received  per 
pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  in  the  upper  group  on  the  com- 
bination basis  would  be  much  less  than  that  received  on  the  old  basis. 
This,  however,  is  not  inequitable  when  we  consider  the  ratio  of  the 
amount  received  from  the  common  school  fund  to  the  total  tuition 
receipts  and  the  tax  levy  of  the  lower  as  compared  with  the  same 
items  in  the  upper  group. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
School  Finances — Expenditures 

As  was  stated  in  one  of  the  preceding  chapters,  the  total  expendi- 
tures for  the  support  of  schools  are  met,  so  far  as  local  efforts  are 
involved,  by  tax  levies  made  for  two  distinct  purposes ;  the  one  for 
the  payment  of  salaries  of  teachers,  and  the  other  for  the  mainte- 
nance and  operative  expenses  of  the  school.  The  former  is  called 
the  tuition  fund,  the  latter,  the  special  school  fund.  In  the  preceding 
chapter  an  analysis  was  made  of  the  funds  for  the  payment  of 
teachers,  while  in  this  chapter  a  study  will  be  made  of  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  money  received  for  maintenance  and  operation. 

It  was  stated  in  the  introduction  that  the  data  from  which  the 
following  tables  were  compiled  were  taken  from  the  itemized  reports 
of  the  school  officials  to  the  county  atiditors  and  that  the  classifica- 
tion of  expenditures  as  herein  given  were  made  by  the  writer  with 
one  assistant;  so  that  uniformity  prevails  throughout.  Some  diffi- 
culty was  experienced  in  classifying  some  of  the  expenditures  for 
supplies,  since  many  school  officials  used  that  term  to  include  most 
anything  that  might  be  needed  for  office  or  school  purposes.  In 
most  cases,  however,  it  was  possible  to  determine  for  what  the  ex- 
penditure was  made  by  reference  to  the  original  vouchers  filed 
with  the  reports. 

The  writer  was  influenced  to  a  large  extent  by  the  investigation 
of  City  School  Expenditures  by  Dr.  Strayer  in  the  classification 
of  expenditures.  Certain  modifications  were  made  to  suit  the  local 
conditions.  A  few  items  are  included  in  order  to  eliminate  an  un- 
usual element  in  a  few  of  the  schools,  rather  than  for  the  purpose 
of  comparing  one  type  of  schools  to  another  in  this  particular.  For 
example,  a  few  school  corporations  spent  quite  a  little  money  for 
legal  services  which  was  an  unusual  expenditure,  and  to  be  included 
under  business  administration  would  give  erroneous  results  for  that 
school  in  this  particular. 

The  practice  of  school  officials  and  recent  legislation  has  changed 
the  distribution  of  funds  somewhat  from  that  originally  intended 
by  the  law  concerning  the  same.  While  the  law  originally  specified 
that  teachers'  salaries  must  be  paid  from  the  tuition  fund,  it  is 
possible  under  certain  conditions  for  an  unexpended  balance  in  the 
special  school  fund  to  be  used  for  this  purpose  when  there  is  a 


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[157] 


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[i6o] 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      i6i 

deficit  in  the  tuition  fund.  Township  trustees  may  pay  transfer  fees 
of  pupils  from  one  corporation  to  another,  either  from  the  special 
school  fund  or  the  township  fund.  In  all  cases  where  money  was 
paid  out  of  the  township  fund  for  the  transfer  of  pupils  and  salary 
of  township  trustees,  these  expenditures  are  included  in  the  total 
expenditures  for  maintenance  and  operation  in  the  schools  of  that 
corporation.  The  total  amount  spent  by  each  corporation  for  the 
maintenance  and  operation  of  the  school  for  the  school  year  in  the 
different  types  of  corporations  are  given  in  Tables  lxxiv,  lxxv, 
Lxxvi,  and  lxxvii.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  expenditures 
are  divided  into  two  classes.  The  first  includes  what  are  called 
current  expenses,  while  the  second  included  additions  and  permanent 
improvement,  including  the  public  library  expenditures,  which  are 
met  by  special  tax  levies.  The  percentile  distribution  of  current 
expenses  in  each  corporation  of  the  four  types  of  schools  are  given 
in  Tables  lxxviii,  lxxix,  lxxx,  and  lxxxi.  While  this  dis- 
tribution gives  an  adequate  basis  for  the  comparison  of  one  school 
corporation  with  another  of  the  same  type,  the  distribution  of  cur- 
rent expenses  on  the  basis  of  cost  per  pupil  as  given  in  Tables 
Lxxxii,  Lxxxiii,  Lxxxiv,  and  lxxxv  give  a  very  much  more 
satisfactory  basis  for  comparison  of  the  schools  of  one  type 
with  the  schools  of  another.  The  central  tendencies  and  deviations 
from  central  tendencies  for  both  the  percentile  distribution  and  the 
distribution  on  the  basis  of  cost  per  pupil  are  given  in  Table  lxxxvi. 
In  order  that  there  may  be  no  misunderstanding  as  to  the  mean- 
ing of  the  tables,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  first  group  giving  the 
gross  amounts  is  to  be  read  as  follows :  township  number  one  spent 
for  all  purposes  for  the  school  year,  the  total  amount  of  $3,690.00, 
of  which  $2,389.00  was  for  the  payment  of  salaries  of  teachers, 
$275.00  for  business  administration,  $107.00  for  institute  fees, 
$320.00  for  transfers,  etc.  The  second  group  of  tables  is  to  be  read 
in  like  manner.  The  distribution  of  the  total  current  expenditures 
of  township  number  one  is  as  follows :  64.87  per  cent  of  the  total 
amount  was  spent  for  payment  of  salaries  of  teachers;  35.13  per 
cent  was  for  all  other  purposes ;  y.y2  per  cent  of  the  total  expendi- 
tures was  for  the  business  administration ;  2.78  per  cent  for  institute 
fees ;  8.68  per  cent  for  transfers ;  2.27  per  cent  for  janitor  service, 
etc.  The  third  group  of  tables  are  to  be  read  as  follows :  The  total 
cost  per  pupil  in  township  number  one  for  the  school  year  was 
$29.28,  of  which  $18.95  was  spent  for  payment  of  salaries  of  teach- 


i62      A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

ers;  $10.33  ^or  all  other  current  expenses,  of  which  $2.18  was  for 
the  business  administration;  $0.85  for  institute  fees;  $2.54  for 
transfers;   $0.67  for  janitor  service,  etc. 

Before  attempting  an  interpretation  of  these  tables,  it  may  be 
well  to  explain  some  of  the  items  under  which  the  expenditures  are 
grouped.  In  all  tables,  except  the  first  in  each  group,  it  will  be 
observed  that  a  certain  amount  of  money  was  paid  for  supervision. 
The  reason  for  not  including  the  amount  of  money  spent  for  this 
purpose  as  a  part  of  the  current  expenses  of  the  teaching  staff,  is 
that  the  fund  from  which  this  money  is  paid  is  different  from  that 
provided  for  the  payment  of  salaries  of  teachers,  the  former  being 
paid  from  the  special  school  fund  and  the  latter  from  the  tuition 
fund.  All  superintendents  and  principals  who  give  their  entire  time 
to  instruction  are  paid  out  of  the  tuition  fund,  but  if  a  superin- 
tendent spends  a  part  of  his  time  in  supervision  and  a  part  of  his 
time  in  giving  instruction  in  the  high  school,  his  salary  is  likewise 
divided,  one  part  being  paid  out  of  the  special  school  fund,  and  the 
other,  out  of  the  tuition  fund.  All  supervisors  who  supervise  the 
work  of  other  teachers  and  give  no  class  instruction  are  paid  out 
of  the  special  school  fund,  but  if  they  devote  their  whole  time  to 
class  instruction  they  are  paid  out  of  the  tuition  fund.  That  is,  all 
supervisors  are  considered  administrative  officers  rather  than  teach- 
ers, so  in  all  comparative  statements,  expenditures  for  this  purpose 
are  kept  separate  from  expenditures  for  teachers'  salaries. 

All  expenses  involved  for  the  administration  of  schools  outside 
of  the  superintendent's  salary,  legal  service,  and  the  expense  for 
taking  the  school  census  are  included  under  business  administration. 
In  the  township  where  the  township  trustee  is  the  school  official, 
the  total  amount  paid  for  his  services  is  included  in  these  tabula- 
tions. This,  however,  is  not  exactly  accurate,  since  this  officer 
exercises  the  three-fold  duties  of  administering  the  schools,  looking 
after  all  the  roads  of  the  corporation  except  the  macadamized, 
which  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  county  officials,  and  caring  for 
the  poor.  But  since  we  have  no  basis  for  distribution  of  his  salary, 
it  is  necessary  to  include  the  total  amount  in  these  tabulations.  In 
a  few  of  the  reports  in  which  the  trustees  gave  itemized  statements, 
it  was  observed  that  approximately  three-fifths  to  two-thirds  of  the 
total  expenditures  were  for  looking  after  the  schools.  There  are 
other  officials  who  would  be  able,  under  a  different  organization  of 
schools,  to  exercise  these  other  duties  with  little  or  no  additional 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      163 

expense,  so  that  it  is  not  an  inequitable  basis  to  include  the  total 
amounts. 

As  was  explained  in  a  previous  chapter,  the  expenditures  for 
institute  fees  is  the  money  paid  teachers  for  attending  township 
institutes,  so  that  this  item  of  expenditure  will  apply  only  to  schools 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  county  superintendent,  except  a  few 
towns  in  which  school  officials  pay  their  teachers  when  attending 
a  local  township  institute.  In  the  expense  accounts  of  practically 
every  school  corporation  a  certain  amount  of  money  was  paid  for 
the  commencement  exercises  including  a  commencement  speaker, 
music,  and  decorations.  Also  a  few  of  the  corporations  arranged 
for  special  lecturers  to  come  before  the  teachers  and  give  addresses 
along  educational  lines.  The  expenses  for  these  two  purposes  are 
included  under  the  item  "Commencement  expenses  and  special  lec- 
tures." Expenditures  for  the  transportation  of  pupils  appear  in 
the  accounts  of  the  townships  with  consolidated  schools  and  a  few 
of  the  townships  with  district  schools  where  an  outlying  school  has 
been  abandoned  and  the  pupils  transported  to  the  nearest  school  in 
that  corporation.  For  all  other  items  given  in  these  tables,  the 
headings  will  indicate  the  nature  of  the  expenditures. 

Since  the  purpose  of  this  study  is  to  determine  the  relative 
standing  of  the  schools  of  one  type  with  those  of  another,  little 
attempt  has  been  made  to  determine  the  relation  of  one  school  in 
the  various  itetns  with  other  schools  of  the  same  type,  but  anyone 
interested  in  this  phase  of  the  work  can  take  the  data  given  and 
easily  determine  this  for  himself  by  methods  similar  to  those  used 
by  Dr.  Strayer  in  his  City  School  Expenditures.  By  referring, 
however,  to  the  central  tendencies  and  deviations  as  given  in  Table 
Lxxxvi,  as  well  as  the  percentile  distribution  of  expenditures  as 
given  in  Tables  lxxviii  to  lxxxi,  it  will  be  observed  that 
there  is  no  marked  central  tendency  and  that  variation  is  the  chief 
characteristic.  The  extent  of  the  variation  may  be  observed  in 
townships  with  district  schools  by  referring  to  Table  lxxviii. 
Township  number  twenty,  which  devotes  74.22  per  cent  of  the  total 
expenditures  to  the  payment  of  salaries  of  teachers,  expends  twice 
the  amount,  relatively  speaking,  for  this  purpose  as  does  township 
number  twenty-six  which  spends  36.77  per  cent.  Naturally  the  in- 
verse variation  in  the  amount  spent  for  all  other  current  expenses, 
will  be  found.  Even  a  greater  variation  will  be  observed  in  the 
expenditures  for  business  administration.    Township  number  fifteen 


164     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

spent  22.63  per  cent  for  this  purpose,  while  township  number  twenty- 
six  spent  only  4.32  per  cent.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  how  any 
school  corporation  can  devote  one-half  of  the  total  current  ex- 
penses, not  including  teachers'  salaries,  to  this  one  item,  as  is  the 
case  in  township  number  fifteen,  which  is  two-fifths  as  much  as  is 
paid  for  the  salaries  of  teachers  for  the  school  year.  The  variation 
in  the  amount  paid  for  transfers  is  to  be  expected  and  is  not  difficult 
to  understand.  The  variability  in  the  amounts  paid  for  janitor 
service,  is  due  in  part  to  the  practice  of  some  township  trustees, 
who,  in  order  to  economize,  require  teachers  to  take  care  of  their 
own  school  buildings  or  pay  for  the  same  out  of  their  own  salaries, 
while  others  are  more  liberal  and  will  pay  even  more  than  is  required 
for  the  care  of  the  building,  in  order  to  raise  the  salaries  of  the 
teachers.  A  somewhat  similar  situation  exists  with  reference  to 
the  amount  expended  for  school  census.  Some  township  trustees 
take  the  enumeration  of  the  school  children  themselves  and  include 
the  expense  of  the  same  as  a  part  of  their  salaries,  while  others,  in 
order  to  pay  some  political  debts,  may  employ  their  "heelers"  to 
take  the  enumeration  with  liberal  compensation,  but  in  most  cases 
reports  indicate  that  only  fair  salaries  have  been  paid  for  this  work. 
The  amount  spent  for  fuel  and  repairs  as  well  as  one  or  two  other 
items  vary  greatly  from  the  central  tendency,  ranging  from  less  than 
one  per  cent  to  three  times  the  average  for  the  group.  The  amount 
spent  for  transportation  of  pupils  by  townships  with  district  schools 
shows  how  extensive  is  the  practice  of  combining  districts  in  com- 
munities with  decreasing  population. 

The  expenditures  in  townships  with  consolidated  schools,  on 
the  whole,  do  not  vary  so  greatly  as  in  townships  with  district 
schools.  The  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  matter  of  supervision  and 
the  great  variation  in  the  amount  spent  by  corporations  for  this 
purpose  is  due  in  part  to  the  method  of  accounting  by  the  school 
officials.  The  same  variation  will  be  observed  in  the  table  for  town 
schools. 

The  variation  in  the  per  cent  of  the  total  expenditures  used  for 
the  payment  of  salaries  of  teachers  in  consolidated  schools  is  due 
to  the  variation  in  amount  paid  for  transportation  of  pupils.  For 
example,  township  number  one  pays  26.43  P^^  cent  for  teachers' 
salaries  and  43.6  per  cent  for  transportation,  while  township  number 
thirteen  spends  64.1  per  cent  for  teachers'  salaries  and  only  16.08 
per  cent  for  transportation.    While  the  variation  in  the  amount  re- 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      165 

quired  for  business  administration  in  consolidated  schools  is  not  so 
great  as  in  townships  with  district  schools,  it  is  quite  marked  as  will 
be  seen  by  comparing  township  number  fourteen,  which  spends 
11.08  per  cent  of  the  total  expenditures  for  this  as  compared  with 
1. 3 1  per  cent  spent  by  township  number  fifteen.  Except  in  a  few 
of  the  townships  in  which  there  are  no  high  schools  the  amount 
required  for  transfers  is  quite  small  as  compared  with  townships 
with  district  schools,  yet  the  additional  amounts  paid  by  the  latter 
do  not  equal  the  additional  amount  required  by  the  former  for 
transportation.  In  other  items  the  variation  within  the  group  is 
not  so  marked. 

Much  greater  uniformity  is  observed  in  the  expenditures  of  town 
than  in  the  township  schools,  except  in  supervision,  which  has 
already  been  noted.  The  variation  in  per  cent  of  total  expenditures 
devoted  to  the  salaries  of  high  school  teachers  is  due  to  a  large 
extent  to  the  number  of  high  school  pupils  received  from  the  sur- 
rounding country  as  is  indicated  by  the  amount  received  for  trans- 
fers by  these  towns.  The  economy  which  most  towns  have  to  exer- 
cise prevents  any  unusual  variation  in  most  expenditures. 

The  tables  giving  the  distribution  of  expenditures  on  the  basis 
of  cost  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  show  similar  variations 
among  the  corporations  of  each  group,  but  give  a  much  better  basis 
for  the  comparison  of  schools  of  one  type  with  the  schools  of 
another. 

Table  lxxxvi  makes  possible  the  comparison  of  one  type 
with  the  others  in  each  of  the  items  given.  It  will  be  observed  that 
a  much  smaller  per  cent  is  paid  for  the  salaries  of  teachers  in  town- 
ships with  district  and  consolidated  schools  than  is  paid  in  either 
the  town  or  city  schools.  That  is,  in  the  case  of  consolidated 
schools  one-half  of  the  total  expenses  of  maintenance  and  operation 
of  schools  is  devoted  to  the  payment  of  salaries  of  teachers,  as  com- 
pared to  three-fifths  of  total  expense  in  the  case  of  townships  with 
district  schools  and  three- fourths  the  total  expense  in  town  and 
city  schools. 

Since  townships  with  consolidated  schools,  as  well  as  townships 
with  district  schools,  spend  a  much  smaller  per  cent  for  teachers' 
salaries  than  do  town  and  city  schools,  it  naturally  follows  that  a 
larger  per  cent  of  the  total  expenditures  is  devoted  to  miscellaneous 
current  expenses  by  these  corporations.  By  referring  to  the  sum- 
mary of  the  percentile  distribution  of  expenditures  as  given  in  the 


1 66     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

upper  part  of  Table  lxxxvi,  it  will  be  seen  that  city  schools  spend 
5.96  per  cent  of  the  money  for  schools  for  supervision,  and  that 
towns  spend  5.3  per  cent  with  a  variability  of  4.28  per  cent  and  that 
townships  with  consolidated  schools  spend  .5  per  cent  for  this  pur- 
pose. This  comparison,  however,  is  misleading  when  we  consider 
the  facts  given  in  the  chapter  on  supervision,  which  shows  that  little 
real  supervision  was  done  outside  of  the  city  schools.  The  amount 
expended  by  towns  for  this  purpose  is,  as  has  been  explained  before, 
due  for  the  most  part  to  the  method  of  accounting  in  the  different 
towns.  When  we  remember  that  the  tuition  levy  in  many  of  the 
towns  was  the  maximum  amount  permitted  by  law,  it  is  readily 
understood  why  these  corporations  would  draw  from  a  special  school 
fund  for  the  salary  of  the  head  man  and  charge  it  to  supervision. 
We  see  that  townships  with  district  schools  spend  7.55  per  cent  with 
a  variability  of  1.93  per  cent  and  townships  with  consolidated  schools 
spend  6.4  per  cent  with  a  variability  of  2.9  per  cent  for  business 
administration  as  compared  with  .94  per  cent  for  town  schools  and 
.63  per  cent  for  city  schools,  thus  in  ratio  to  the  total  expenses,  it 
costs  from  seven  to  fifteen  times  as  much  for  the  administration  of 
the  township  schools  as  it  does  the  urban  schools.  The  two  ex- 
penditures, institute  fees  and  transfers,  are  common  only  in  the 
township  schools  and  are  determined  by  fixed  factors.  Institute 
fees  vary  only  with  the  salaries  of  the  teachers  in  each  corporation, 
while  transfers  vary  according  to  the  number  of  children  attending 
school  in  some  other  corporation  than  the  one  in  which  they  reside. 
Since  the  townships  with  district  schools  have  no  high  school 
facilities,  naturally  these  corporations  pay  a  much  larger  amount  for 
transfers  than  do  townships  with  consolidated  schools.  Likewise, 
there  is  a  much  more  pronounced  variability.  The  larger  the  school 
organization  the  greater  the  per  cent  required  for  j  anitor  services ; 
townships  with  district  schools  spending  1.74  per  cent  of  the  total 
amount  required  for  maintenance  and  operation,  while  consolidated 
schools  spend  3.68  per  cent,  town  schools  spend  4.92  per  cent,  and 
city  schools  spend  5.88  per  cent.  Little  variation  was  found  in  the 
relative  amounts  spent  for  oiftce,  school,  and  janitors'  supplies, 
while  towns  spend  a  little  larger  amount  for  laboratory,  domestic 
science  and  manual  training  equipment.  Township  and  town  schools 
vary  little  in  the  relative  amount  required  for  fuel,  while  city 
schools  spend  less  than  one-third  that  required  by  other  corpora 
tions.    Townships  with  district  schools  and  town  schools  spend  an 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      167 

equal  per  cent  for  repairs,  which  is  slightly  more  than  that  spent  by 
city  schools  and  about  twice  as  much  as  is  required  by  consolidated 
schools.  The  reason  so  little  is  spent  for  repairs  by  consolidated 
schools  is  due  to  the  fact  that  a  great  number  of  the  buildings  are 
practically  new.  There  is  no  marked  variation  in  the  amount  spent 
by  the  different  types  for  printing  and  advertising,  freight,  ex- 
pressage,  and  drayage,  telegraph,  telephone,  and  insurance,  but  as 
is  indicated  under  equipment,  towns  and  cities  are  more  liberal  in 
their  support  of  the  school  libraries. 

By  referring  to  the  lower  part  of  Table  lxxxvi,  which  gives 
the  central  tendencies  and  variabilities  on  the  basis  of  cost  per 
pupil,  it  will  be  observed  that  in  the  relative  standing  of  the  four 
types  of  schools  for  the  various  items  given  is  quite  different  from 
that  given  in  percentile  distribution.  The  average  cost  per  pupil 
in  townships  with  district  schools  is  $34.50  with  a  variability  of 
$7.20  as  compared  with  a  cost  of  $44.85  with  a  variability  of  $5.71 
in  townships  with  consolidated  schools,  $27.02  with  a  variability  of 
$2.96  for  town  schools,  and  $32.75  with  a  variability  of  $4.76  for 
city  schools.  On  the  basis  of  actual  cost  per  pupil  in  average  daily 
attendance  for  maintenance  and  operation,  we  see  that  it  costs  nearly 
twice  as  much  to  maintain  the  consolidated  schools  as  it  does  the 
town  schools,  and  one-third  more  than  it  does  the  townships  with 
district  schools  or  the  city  schools.  While  in  the  percentile  distri- 
bution it  was  seen  that  towns  and  cities  spent  a  much  larger  per  cent 
for  teachers'  salaries  than  for  other  purposes,  on  the  basis  of  cost 
per  pupil,  towns  spend  less  money  for  teachers'  salaries  than  any 
other  type,  spending  on  an  average  $19.91  with  a  variability  of 
$2.07.  Townships  with  district  schools  spent  an  average  of  $20.31 
per  pupil  for  teachers*  salaries  with  a  variability  of  $3.99,  townships 
with  consolidated  schools,  $22.06  with  a  variability  of  $4.53  per 
pupil,  and  city  schools  an  average  of  $24.22  with  a  variability  of 
$2.54  for  this  purpose.  The  greater  amount  spent  by  city  schools 
is  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  cities  have  a  longer  term  of  school 
than  any  of  the  other  types.  It  may  be  added  while  speaking  of 
the  relative  amounts  spent  for  teachers'  salaries,  that  the  distribu- 
tion of  expenditures  for  grade  and  high  school  teachers  on  the 
percentile  basis  gives  a  fair  relative  standing  of  the  different  types. 
The  amount  given  in  the  lower  table  on  the  basis  of  actual  cost 
per  pupil  is  not  intended  to  express  the  actual  cost  for  high  school 
and  grade  instruction,  respectively,  but  merely  the  average  cost  for 


1 68     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

all  pupils  for  these  two  items.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  in  all 
reports,  as  has  been  stated,  the  average  daily  attendance  was  given 
in  totals ;  so  it  was  impossible  to  determine  the  average  daily  attend- 
ance in  high  schools  per  pupil  from  the  average  daily  attendance 
in  the  grades,  and  it  was  also  impossible  to  determine  the  exact  cost 
per  pupil  for  instruction  in  the  high  school  and  instruction  in  the 
grades  separately. 

When  we  compare  the  different  types  of  schools  as  to  the  amount 
required  for  business  administration,  we  see  that  townships  with 
consolidated  schools,  which  spend  an  average  of  $2.74  per  pupil 
and  townships  with  district  schools  which  spend  an  average  of  $2.58 
per  pupil,  require  eight  to  ten  times  the  amount  spent  by  towns  and 
cities  which  spend  $0.29  and  $0.21,  respectively,  for  this  purpose. 
The  variation  in  the  relative  amount  required  for  janitor  service  re- 
vealed by  the  percentile  distribution  is  not  so  marked  when  we 
consider  the  amount  on  the  basis  of  cost  per  pupil,  though  the  same 
relative  standing  of  the  different  types  of  schools  prevails.  No 
marked  variation  in  school  and  janitors'  supplies,  additional  furni- 
ture, rent,  printing  and  advertising,  census,  freight,  express,  dray- 
age,  telegraph,  postage,  telephone,  insurance,  laboratory,  and  com- 
mencement expenses,  on  the  basis  of  cost  per  pupil,  are  observed, 
while  city  schools  spend  a  much  smaller  per  cent  for  fuel  on  actual 
cost  per  pupil  basis.  The  amount  spent  by  consolidated  schools  for 
the  transportation  of  pupils  is  $11.50  with  a  variability  of  $2.43, 
which  is  an  expenditure  peculiar  to  this  type  of  schools. 

The  fact  that  there  is  a  great  variation  in  the  total  cost  per  pupil 
in  the  different  schools  of  each  type,  naturally  leads  to  the  inquiry 
as  to  the  distribution  of  the  additional  amount  spent  by  these  schools 
over  the  amount  spent  by  other  corporations  whose  total  amount  is 
much  less,  on  the  amount  spent  for  teachers'  salaries.  In  order  to 
determine  this  fact,  eight  corporations  in  townships  with  district 
schools,  town,  and  city  schools,  and  six  in  the  township  con- 
solidated schools,  respectively,  were  selected  in  the  order  of  total 
cost  per  pupil,  beginning  with  the  highest.  In  like  manner  an 
equal  number  of  corporations  were  selected  from  each  type  begin- 
ning with  the  lowest.  The  per  cent  of  the  total  cost  spent  for  teach- 
ers' salaries,  the  per  cent  spent  for  all  other  school  purposes,  the 
wealth  per  capita,  and  the  tax  levies,  for  these  corporations,  were 
taken  from  other  tables  and  compiled  in  Tables  lxxxvii,  lxxxviii, 
Lxxxix,  and  xc,  in  order  to  give  some  basis  for  comparing  the 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      169 

corporations  spending  the  greater  amount  with  the  corporations 
spending  the  lesser  amount.  The  averages  for  each  group  were 
determined  and  are  given  in  Table  xci,  together  with  the  deviations 
from  the  average  for  the  group. 

We  find  that  the  upper  group  of  townships  with  district  schools 
spend  an  average  of  $50.89  per  pupil  as  compared  with  $22.26  per 
pupil  by  the  lower  group; — that  is,  the  higher  group  spends  an 
average  of  $16.83  more  than  the  average  for  the  entire  group  of 
townships,  while  the  lower  group  spends  $11.80  per  pupil  less  than 
the  average  for  the  entire  group.  When  we  come  to  the  distribution 
of  these  funds,  we  find  that  the  group  expending  the  greater  amount 
for  schools  spends  only  1.2  per  cent  more  for  the  salaries  of  teachers 
than  the  average  of  the  entire  group,  which  is  not  nearly  so  large 
a  per  cent  as  is  spent  by  the  lower  group,  which  spends  7.5  per  cent 
more  than  the  average  for  the  entire  group.  The  wealth  per  capita 
of  the  higher  group  exceeds  the  average  for  the  entire  group  $11.37, 
while  the  average  for  the  lower  group  is  $1,093.00  less  than  the 
average  for  the  entire  group,  or,  in  other  words,  the  average  wealth 
per  capita  for  the  higher  group  is  more  than  twice  the  average 
wealth  per  capita  for  the  lower  group.  The  levy  for  tuition  pur- 
poses for  the  upper  group  is  only  one  cent  on  the  hundred  dollars 
less  than  the  average  for  the  entire  group  and  seven  cents  less  than 
the  average  for  the  lower  group.  The  same  observation  may  be 
made  with  reference  to  the  tax  levy  for  special  school  fund.  The 
levy  for  the  upper  group  is  only  three  cents  less  than  that  for  the 
average  for  the  whole  group  and  seven  cents  less  than  that  for  the 
lower  group.  A  wider  variation,  however,  prevails  in  the  total 
amount  of  the  tax  levy.  The  average  total  levy  for  the  higher  group 
is  sixteen  cents  on  the  hundred  dollars  less  than  that  for  the  average 
of  the  total  group,  while  the  lower  group  is  forty-five  cents  greater 
than  that  for  the  average  of  the  entire  group  or  sixty-one  cents  on 
the  hundred  dollars  more  than  that  for  the  higher  group.  The  lower 
group  of  townships,  spending  a  smaller  amount  per  capita  for  the 
schools,  spends  a  relatively  larger  per  cent  for  the  teachers'  salaries, 
but  the  additional  tax  levy  for  school  purposes  in  this  group  is  not 
sufficient  to  equal  the  great  difference  observed  in  the  wealth  per 
capita  of  the  two  groups. 

When  we  compare  the  higher  group  of  townships  with  consoli- 
dated schools  with  the  lower  group  of  the  same  type,  we  find  that 
there  is  very  little  difference  in  the  relative  amount  spent  for  teach- 


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187] 

i88     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 


TABLE  LXXXVII 

Statistics  Showing  the  Relation  of  Total  Cost  per  Pupil  to  the  Amount  Spent 
FOR  Teachers'  Salaries,  Wealth  per  Capita,  and  Tax  Levies  in  Townships  with 

District  Schools 


i 

2s3 

i 

Tax  levy  per  $100 

"S 

-zt^ 

Ig. 

1^ 

1 

8 

s|| 

gl 

a 

§ 

rt 

11 

II 

1 

I 

1 

CO 

1 

19 

$73  .84 

72.2 

27.8 

$4204 

$0.15 

$0.25 

$1.98 

20 

61.41 

74.2 

25.8 

4475 

.20 

.20 

1.92 

29 

54.44 

40.9 

59.1 

5481 

.22 

.25 

1.78 

30 

49.51 

57.3 

42.7 

4184 

.30 

.24 

1.80 

27 

45.08 

53.9 

46.1 

4483 

.19 

.22 

1.80 

14 

44.01 

57.7 

42.3 

2893 

.20 

.20 

1.63 

23 

39.54 

61.1 

38.9 

3588 

.26 

.22 

1.72 

25 

39.30 

68.9 

31.1 

5794 

.25 

.10 

1.94 

Average 

50.89 

60.9 

39.2 

4388 

.21 

.21 

1.82 

18 

19.35 

69.2 

30.8 

1171 

.25 

.40 

2.56 

2 

19.79 

69.7 

30.3 

1835 

.40 

.50 

2.77 

3 

21.06 

67.7 

32.3 

2208 

.30 

.20 

2.36 

21 

21.27 

59.3 

40.7 

4674 

.16 

.12 

2.36 

7 

22.91 

62.4 

37.6 

2205 

.30 

.30 

2.42 

5 

24.35 

70.1 

29.9 

971 

.25 

.15 

2.24 

10 

24.57 

66.7 

33.3 

2527 

.25 

.15 

2.02 

6 

24.78 

72.1 

27.9 

1677 

.32 

.40 

2.82 

Average 

22.26 

67.2 

32.8 

2158 

.28 

.28 

2.43 

ers'  salaries  and  that  the  lower  group  not  only  has  less  wealth  per 
capita,  but  also  a  smaller  levy  for  tuition  and  special  school  pur- 
poses, yet  the  total  tax  levy  for  the  lower  group  exceeds  by  seventeen 
cents  the  average  levy  for  the  higher  group.  While  there  is  a  direct 
relation  between  the  amounts  of  wealth  per  capita  and  the  cost  per 
pupil  in  townships  with  district  schools,  no  such  relationship  prevails 
in  the  cost  of  consolidated  schools.  In  the  higher  group  of  town- 
ships an  average  of  $6.51  more  is  spent  than  the  average  for  the 
group,  while  the  lower  group  spends  an  average  of  $6.31  less  than 
the  average  for  the  group,  but  this  variation  is  offset,  as  was  the 
case  of  township  with  district  schools,  by  a  greater  per  cent  of  the 
total  amount  of  the  lower  group  of  corporations  being  spent  for 
teachers'  salaries  than  in  the  higher  group.  While  the  higher  group 
spent  3.5  per  cent  less  than  the  average  for  the  entire  group  for 
teachers'  salaries,  the  lower  group  spent  4.1  per  cent  more  than  the 
average  for  the  entire  group.    The  average  wealth  per  capita,  how- 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      189 

ever,  for  the  higher  group  exceeds  the  average  for  the  entire  group 
$2i8.cx),  but  the  average  for  the  lower  group  exceeds  the  average 
for  the  entire  group  $305.00.  The  tax  levy  for  tuition  purposes  of 
the  higher  group  was  at  the  maximum  fifty  cents  on  the  hundred 
dollars,  while  the  average  for  the  lower  group  was  only  thirty-seven 
cents  on  the  hundred  dollars  and  the  tax  levy  of  the  special  school 
fund  of  the  higher  group  was  fifty-two  cents,  while  the  levy 
for  the  lower  group  was  thirty-nine  cents  on  the  hundred  dollars. 

TABLE  LXXXVIII 
Statistics  Showing  the  Relation  of  Total  Cost  per  Pupil  to  the  Amount  Spent 
FOR  Teachers'  Salaries,  Wealth  per  Capita,  and  Tax  Levies  in  Townships  with 

Consolidated  Schools 


i 

"(3     « 

^U 

"S. 

Tax  levy  per  $100 

0 

2^1 

K  3 

! 

^ 

u? 

CO  a 

^ 

i, 

1^ 

III 

^=3 

1 

§ 

1 

1 

11 

$57  .35 

49.8 

50.2 

$7530 

$0.20 

$0.40 

$1.60 

15 

56.27 

54.3 

45.7 

3938 

.35 

.55 

2.32 

12 

55.60 

35.9 

64.1 

7178 

.19 

.50 

1.65 

2 

52.58 

51.6 

48.4 

6041 

.25 

.49 

2.20 

7 

50.59 

54.8 

45.2 

3892 

.30 

.50 

1.99 

6 

49.09 

50.9 

49.1 

4309 

.31 

.50 

2.06 

Average 

53.58 

49.5 

50.5 

5481 

.27 

.49 

1.97 

14 

32.70 

42.2 

57.8 

3459 

.30 

.50 

2.25 

3 

32.90 

53.8 

46.2 

3995 

.23 

.50 

2.12 

4 

34.42 

39.4 

60.6 

3735 

.15 

.50 

2.36 

9 

38.58 

51.8 

48.2 

6117 

.18 

.33 

1.84 

13 

40.60 

61.5 

38.5 

3961 

.31 

.50 

2.02 

8 

41.81 

49.7 

50.3 

3820 

.37 

.40 

2.00 

Average 

36.85 

49.7 

50.3 

4181 

.26 

.46 

2.10 

These  facts  with  reference  to  the  town  schools  go  to  show  that  while 
the  schools  are  spending  a  less  amount  per  capita  for  school  pur- 
poses, yet  they  spend  a  relatively  larger  amount  for  teachers' 
salaries,  the  smaller  amount  paid  by  the  lower  group  is  due  in  most 
part  to  the  unwillingness  on  the  part  of  the  towns  to  levy  a  tax 
equal  to  that  of  the  higher  group. 

The  average  cost  per  pupil  in  the  higher  group  of  city  schools, 
is  $38.68  and  exceeds  the  average  for  the  entire  group,  on  the 
basis  of  cost  per  pupil  $5.93,  while  the  average  for  the  lower  group 
is  $27.17  which  is  $5.58  less  than  the  average  for  the  entire  group,. 


190     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 


yet  the  per  cent  of  the  entire  cost  devoted  to  teachers'  salaries  in 
the  lower  group  is  less  than  the  average  for  the  entire  group,  as  is 
also  the  average  for  the  higher  group.  When  we  compare  the 
wealth  per  capita  for  the  two  groups,  we  find  that  the  average  for 
the  higher  group  exceeds  the  average  for  the  entire  group  $347.00, 
while  the  average  for  the  lower  group  is  $480.00  less  than  the  aver- 
age for  the  entire  group.  This  difference  in  wealtth  per  capita  is 
offset  to  a  large  extent  by  the  increase  in  the  tax  levy  which  for  the 

TABLE  LXXXIX 
Statistics  Showing  the  Relation  of  Total  Cost  per  Pupil  to  the  Amount  Spent 
FOR  Teachers'  Salaries,  Wealth  per  Capita,  and  Tax  Levies  in  Town  Schools 


^ 

-3    S 

a% 

c3 

Tax  levy  per  $100 

1 

! 

I{1 

It 

1 

•s 

1 

8 

^S3 

a. 

g 

-3 

i 

III 

11 

1 

1 

i 

1 

3 

$41.54 

69.5 

30.5 

$1905 

$0.50 

$0.65 

$3.14 

26 

35.58 

73.3 

26.7 

23 

34.14 

59.9 

40.1 

1654 

.50 

.50 

2.77 

19 

32.95 

84.6 

15.4 

.50 

.50 

3.14 

21 

32.34 

76.3 

23.7 

1583 

.50 

.50 

3.52 

20 

31.59 

70.0 

30.0 

1314 

.50 

.50 

3.42 

7 

30.12 

72.3 

27.7 

1508 

.50 

.73 

3.14 

4 

30.00 

76.8 

23.2 

1941 

.50 

.28 

2.61 

Average 

33.53 

72.8 

27.2 

1650 

.50 

.52 

3.11 

10 

16.34 

83.2 

16.8 

1043 

.07 

.10 

1.50 

6 

18.92 

82.1 

17.9 

2419 

.40 

.25 

2.29 

17 

19.15 

84.6 

15.4 

1234 

.45 

.55 

2.25 

9 

20.48 

81.9 

18.1 

1326 

.50 

.50 

2.18 

12 

22.75 

80.9 

19.1 

3027 

.20 

.30 

1.93 

8 

23.58 

77.1 

22.9 

1060 

.50 

.65 

3.23 

18 

25.18 

68.5 

31.5 

2293 

.35 

.50 

3.16 

16 

25.28 

84.5 

15.5 

1492 

.50 

.30 

3.22 

Average 

21.71 

80.4 

19.6 

1737 

.37 

.39 

2.47 

lower  group  is  three  cents  more  than  the  average  for  the  higher 
group  for  tuition  purposes  and  six  cents  more  than  the  average  for 
the  upper  group.  A  similar  relationship  exists  with  reference  to 
special  school  funds.  Taking  all  these  things  into  consideration  it 
is  safe  to  conclude  that  most  corporations  with  a  limited  wealth  per 
capita  so  distribute  their  school  funds  that  the  amount  for  teachers' 
salaries  more  nearly  equals  the  amount  spent  for  this  purpose  by 
the  wealthier  communities,  and  economize  in  other  expenditures 
but  are  not  able  to  pay  as  large  salaries  as  the  wealthier  commu- 
nities. 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      191 

We  have  seen  that  corporations  spending  less  than  the  average 
for  the  entire  group  per  capita  for  schools  distribute  the  school 
expenditures  in  such  a  way  as  to  minimize  the  difference  in  the 
amount  paid  for  teachers'  salaries  by  these  corporations  and  the 
amount  paid  by  the  corporations  spending  a  much  larger  amount 
per  capita  for  school  purposes.  In  order  to  do  this  these  corpora- 
tions with  limited  means  must  necessarily  economize  in  all  other 

TABLE  XC 

Statistics  Showing  the  Relation  of  Total  Cost  per  Pupil  to  the  Amount  Spent 
FOR  Teachers'  Salaries,  Wealth  per  Capita,  and  Tax  Levees  in  City  Schools. 


-3     S 

al 

1 

Tax  levy  per  $100 

1 

1 

g 

II 

1 

*o 

1 

1 

3^ 

In 

.2:  =3 

1 

[a 

1 

14 

$46.50 

71.5 

28.5 

$1567 

$0.40 

$0.45 

$3.86 

7 

39.80 

73.4 

26.6 

2782 

.40 

.23 

2.79 

24 

39.10 

73.5 

26.5 

1584 

.40 

.50 

3.48 

9 

37.31 

70.3 

29.7 

2188 

.40 

.64 

3.06 

10 

37.22 

69.3 

30.7 

2260 

.38 

.37 

3.06 

20 

36.88 

75.6 

24.3 

2378 

.35 

.45 

3.23 

25 

36.41 

72.4 

25.6 

3025 

.24 

.45 

2.46 

5 

36.18 

76.4 

23.6 

2288 

.24 

.50 

2.83 

Average 

38.68 

72.8 

27.0 

2259 

.35 

.45 

3.09 

6 

24.33 

78.5 

21.5 

1101 

.50 

.50 

3.12 

22 

24.54 

61.4 

38.6 

1413 

.37 

.50 

3.90 

17 

26.32 

68.4 

37.6 

1861 

.50 

.45 

2.96 

23 

27.45 

76.6 

23.4 

1415 

.38 

.35 

3.51 

4 

28.03 

76.9 

23.1 

1385 

.50 

.50 

3.52 

16 

28.32 

66.9 

33.1 

1704 

.50 

.50 

3.12 

12 

28.84 

87.0 

13.0 

965 

.10 

.50 

3.00 

19 

29.57 

69.6 

30.4 

1614 

.45 

.45 

3.67 

Average 

27.17 

73.2 

26.6 

1432 

.41 

.47 

3.35 

expenditures  for  school  purposes.  This  necessarily  gives  rise  to  the 
question,  "What  is  the  distribution  of  the  additional  money  spent  by 
the  school  corporations  in  the  different  types  which  spend  more 
than  the  average  for  the  entire  group?"  In  order  to  answer  this 
question  eight  corporations  from  townships  with  district  schools, 
towns,  and  cities,  and  six  corporations  from  townships  with  con- 
solidated schools  were  selected  in  the  order  of  the  amount  spent 
for  all  purposes  except  teachers'  salaries,  beginning  with  the  highest. 
In  like  manner  an  equal  number  of  corporations  were  selected  be- 


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Township         f  Higher 
District            <  Total 
Schools             [Lower 

1^1 

T 

11 

a'o 

Is 

[192] 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana      193 

ginning  with  the  lowest.  The  amount  spent  by  these  corporations 
for  the  more  important  items,  such  as  business  administration, 
janitors'  services,  supplies,  fuel,  repairs,  census,  transportation  of 
pupils,  insurance,  and  reference  books,  were  tabulated  as  given  in 
Tables  xcii,  xciii,  xciv,  and  xcv.  The  central  tendencies  of  each 
selected  group  and  the  deviations  of  the  same  from  the  central 
tendencies  of  the  entire  group  are  given  in  Table  xcvi. 

A  study  of  the  results  given  in  the  above  table  shows  no  unusual 
variations.  The  average  for  the  higher  group  of  townships  with 
district  schools  exceeds  the  average  for  the  entire  group  of  all 
expenditures  for  school  purposes,  exclusive  of  teachers'  salaries, 
$6.25,  while  the  average  for  the  lower  group  is  $6.33  less  than  the 
average  for  the  entire  group,  which  means  that  the  higher  group 
spends  about  three  times  the  amount  of  money  for  current  expenses 
as  does  the  lower  group.  When  we  study  the  distribution  of  the 
money  among  the  items  mentioned,  we  find  that  practically  the  same 
ratio  prevails  in  business  administration,  school  supplies,  and  re- 
pairs. The  higher  group  spends  more  for  transfers  and  transporta- 
tion of  pupils,  but  spends  about  the  same  amount  for  school  census 
and  reference  and  supplementary  books.  The  amount  spent  for 
janitor  service  by  the  higher  group  exceeds  the  amount  spent  by  the 
lower  group  about  fifty  per  cent.  The  same  ratio  prevails  in  the 
amount  spent  for  fuel. 

The  ratio  of  the  average  of  the  two  selected  groups  for  town- 
ships with  consolidated  schools  is  much  smaller  than  the  ratio  for 
the  townships  with  district  schools.  The  average  for  the  higher 
group  is  $29.41  or  $6.65  more  than  the  average  for  the  entire  group, 
while  the  average  for  the  lower  group  is  $18.32  or  $5.56  less  than  the 
average  for  the  entire  group;  that  is,  the  average  of  the  higher 
group  exceeds  the  average  of  the  lower  group  about  sixty  per  cent. 
The  average  of  both  the  higher  and  the  lower  groups  exceeds  the 
average  for  the  entire  group  in  business  administration  and  fuel. 
The  amount  spent  for  transfers  by  the  higher  group  is  $1.02  more 
than  the  average  for  the  entire  group,  while  the  average  for  the 
lower  group  is  $0.18  less  than  the  average  for  the  entire  group.  A 
similar  relationship  but  not  quite  so  pronounced  will  be  observed 
in  the  amounts  spent  for  supplies,  repairs,  and  transportation  of 
pupils. 

When  we  consider  the  relationship  of  the  two  groups  of  town 
schools,  much  the  same  condition  prevails  as  in  the  other  types  of 


194     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

schools  considered.  While  the  average  for  the  higher  group  is  little 
more  than  twice  the  average  spent  for  the  lower  group,  considerable 
variation  is  observed  in  the  different  items  of  expenditures.  The 
upper  group  spends  relatively  more  for  janitor  service,  supplies, 
repairs,  and  reference  and  supplementary  books,  but  the  amount 
spent  by  the  lower  group  for  fuel  and  insurance  almost  equals  that 
spent  by  the  higher  group  and  is  greater  than  the  average  for  the 
entire  group.  The  average  for  the  higher  groups  of  city  schools 
varies  much  less  from  the  central  tendency  of  the  entire  group  than 
do  the  higher  groups  in  the  other  types  considered. 

Taking  all  these  facts  into  consideration,  it  will  be  observed  that 
more  money  for  the  township  and  consolidated  schools  means  rela- 
tively larger  expenditures  for  business  administration,  while  a 
greater  amount  of  money  in  town  and  city  schools  does  not  affect 
the  cost  for  this  purpose.  A  greater  amount  of  money  means  a 
relatively  greater  amount  spent  for  janitor  service,  supplies,  labora- 
tory, manual  training  and  domestic  science  supplies,  and  repairs, 
but  does  not  necessarily  mean  a  greater  amount  of  money  for 
fuel,  school  census,  or  insurance. 


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.200] 


f 


CHAPTER  IX 

Summary  and  Conclusion 

Having  presented  the  data  and  determined  the  facts  relative  to 
the  different  phases  of  school  work  in  the  four  types  of  schools 
mentioned,  let  us  now  consider  to  what  extent  the  facts  revealed 
justify  some  of  the  claims  which  have  been  made  for  the  con- 
solidated schools  and  at  the  same  time  consider  some  changes 
that  might  be  made  which  would  result  in  the  material  improve- 
ment of  the  schools  of  all  types. 

In  the  quotation  given  at  the  beginning  of  this  study,  we  find 
the  statement  that  consolidation  gives  an  incentive  for  permanent 
improvement,  beautifying  the  school  grounds,  and  providing 
modern  sanitation  and  schoolroom  equipment.  The  facts  revealed 
in  this  study  justify  this  statement.  The  typical  rural  school  is 
housed  in  a  rectangular  building  that  is  lighted  on  opposite  sides. 
The  building  is  entered  directly  from  the  outside,  heated  by  means 
of  a  wood  or  coal  stove  located  in  the  center  of  the  room,  has  no 
means  of  ventilation  except  doors  and  windows,  shows  little  or  no 
evidence  of  attempts  at  decorations,  is  equipped  with  non-adjust- 
able desks,  twenty  per  cent  of  which  are  double  desks,  provided  with 
unsanitary  water  supply  and  outbuildings,  and  has  very  meager 
library  facilities.  On  the  other  hand  the  typical  consolidated 
school  is  housed  in  a  building  that  is  modern  in  all  its  appointments, 
even  surpassing  the  city  and  town  schools  in  heating  and  ventila- 
tmg  equipments,  lighting,  and  the  number  of  adjustable  desks 
supplied,  and  ranks  second  to  city  schools  in  sanitary  water  supply 
and  toilet  facilities. 

Another  claim  made  for  consolidation  is  that  it  will  enable  a 
rural  community  to  attract  and  hold  better  trained  and  more  ex- 
perienced teachers.  When  we  examine  the  facts  presented,  we 
find  that  sixty-seven  per  cent  of  the  township  district  schools  are 
taught  by  teachers  with  twenty-four  weeks  or  less  of  professional 
training.  One  in  every  four  schools  is  taught  by  an  inexperienced 
teacher,  and  more  than  fifty  per  cent  are  taught  by  teachers  with 
two  or  less  years  of  experience.  Approximately  fifty  per  cent  of 
teachers  are  in  class  A  and  receive  an  average  minimum  salary  of 
$2.36  per  day.  On  the  other  hand  only  fotry  per  cent  of  the 
teachers  in  consolidated  schools  have  twenty-four  weeks  or  less 


202     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

of  professional  training,  and  only  one  in  fifteen  is  an  inexperienced 
teacher.  The  average  training  of  all  the  teachers  in  consolidated 
schools  is  forty-two  weeks,  while  the  average  training  of  the 
teachers  in  townships  with  district  schools  is  twenty-eight  and 
eight-tenths  weeks.  Consolidated  schools  have  less  than  half  the 
number  of  class  A  teachers  we  find  in  the  township  district  schools, 
while  they  have  almost  twice  the  number  of  class  C  teachers.  The 
salary  of  class  A  teachers  in  consolidated  schools  is  $2.50  per  day. 
which  is  $.14  more  than  is  received  by  class  A  teachers  in  town- 
ship district  schools  and  the  average  salary  for  class  C  teachers  in 
consolidated  schools  is  $3.53,  which  is  $.17  more  than  is  received 
by  class  C  teachers  in  township  district  schools.  Thus  we  see  that 
consolidation  of  schools  means  better  trained  and  more  experi- 
enced teachers  and  an  increase  in  daily  salaries.  When  we  com- 
pare these  facts  with  reference  to  training  and  experience  of 
teachers  in  consolidated  schools  with  the  training  and  experience 
of  teachers  in  town  and  city  schools,  we  find  that  the  teaching  staff 
in  the  schools  of  this  type  surpasses  the  teaching  staff  in  town 
schools  and  almost  equals  that  found  in  the  city  schools.  One 
fact,  however,  which  should  be  emphasized  is  that  with  consolida- 
tion also  comes  feminization  of  the  teaching  force.  In  townships 
with  district  schools  thirty-four  and  four-tenths  per  cent  of  the 
total  teaching  population  were  men,  as  compared  with  sixteen  and 
six-tenths  per  cent  in  consolidated  schools.  Fewer  men  are  found 
in  consolidated  schools  than  in  the  town  schools,  but  there  are 
almost  twice  as  many  as  are  found  in  the  city  schools.  Thus  the 
facts  presented  bear  out  the  claim  that  with  consolidation  comes 
the  professional  improvement  of  teachers,  longer  years  of  service, 
and  increase  in  salaries. 

The  facts  fail  to  substantiate  the  statement  made  by  advocates  of 
consolidated  schools  that  consolidation  means  the  introduction  of 
specially  trained  teachers  in  such  subjects  as  agriculture,  home 
economics,  manual  training,  domestic  science,  music,  and  art;  an 
enrichment  of  the  course  of  study,  the  enlargement  of  the  school 
as  a  factor  in  the  community  life,  and  the  development  of  the 
social  activities  in  the  school  itself.  It  is  true  that  quite  a  number 
of  consolidated  schools  are  provided  with  special  teachers  or 
supervisors,  but  when  we  come  to  the  question  of  the  enrichment 
of  the  course  of  study  we  find  that  consolidation  has  not  brought 
about  the  general  introduction  of  the  newer  subjects,  which  are 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana     203 

peculiarly  well  adapted  to  rural  life.  Less  than  fifty  per  cent  of 
the  consolidated  schools  have  made  any  special  provision  for  these 
subjects,  while  nearly  all  have  followed  the  lead  of  the  schools  in 
the  larger  centers  by  providing  special  teachers  for  music  and 
drawing.  On  account  of  the  nature  of  the  organization  and  timely 
interest  in  consolidated  schools,  much  more  supervision  is  given  the 
work  in  the  schools  of  this  type  than  in  the  township  district 
schools,  but  little  effective  constructive  supervision  is  found  out- 
side of  the  larger  cities.  The  facts  relative  to  the  social  activities 
both  in  the  school  itself  and  in  the  community  fail  to  reveal  any 
marked  improvement  in  the  consolidated  schools  over  that  found 
in  the  township  district  schools.  Notwithstanding  the  fact,  that 
consolidation  makes  possible  the  organization  of  a  great  variety  of 
student  activities  that  would  foster  and  develop  interests  in  the 
problems  of  the  community,  no  such  organizations  are  found. 
Practically  every  school  reporting  student  organizations  have 
reported  an  athletic  association  or  a  literary  society,  such  as  are 
found  in  the  larger  centers  of  population,  while  all  neglect  these 
other  phases  of  work  which  would  be  of  much  greater  significance. 
A  few  schools  conduct  corn  contests,  but  these  are  also  found  in 
communities  in  which  there  are  no  consolidated  schools.  A  similar 
situation  is  found  with  reference  to  the  activity  of  the  school  in  the 
life  of  the  community.  While  consolidation  means  enlarging  the 
school  constituency  sufficiently  to  insure  community  activities  in  the 
common  center,  the  only  activities  found  in  this  type  have  been 
the  one  or  two  patrons'  meetings  per  year,  such  as  are  found  in  the 
larger  centers  of  population.  The  one  school  making  the  most 
consistent  effort  to  stimulate  interest  in  problems  of  the  community 
through  pupil  organizations  and  to  make  the  school  a  factor  in 
community  life  by  initiating  and  directing  organizations  for  the 
patrons,  was  not  a  consolidated  school,  but  a  town  school  with  a 
limited  number  of  pupils  from  rural  communities.  This  was  an 
exceptional  case,  as  the  town  schools  as  a  type  are  inferior  to  con- 
solidated schools  in  these  matters.  While  it  may  be  said  that 
consolidation  makes  possible  these  larger  social  activities  of  the 
school,  our  investigations  conclusively  show  that  these  possibilities 
are  not  realized. 

A  comparison  of  the  statistics  of  the  different  types  of  schools 
bear  out  in  part  the  claim  made  for  the  superiority  of  consolidated 
schools   over   township   district   schools    in   increasing   the   school 


204      A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

attendance  and  ability  to  retain  the  pupils  enrolled  in  school.  The 
ratio  of  the  enrollment  to  the  school  census  of  consolidated  schools 
is  81.1  per  cent  as  compared  with  78.1  per  cent  for  township  district 
schools,  79.5  per  cent  for  town  schools  and  61  per  cent  for  city 
schools.  When  we  consider  the  average  daily  attendance  in  each 
type,  we  find  that  while  the  consolidated  schools  excel  the  town- 
ship with  district  schools  and  city  schools,  they  do  not  equal  the 
town  schools  in  this  particular.  Two  other  conditions,  however, 
need  to  be  observed  in  summarizing  the  facts  revealed,  viz.,  con- 
solidation is  found  in  townships  where  the  ratio  of  pupils  of 
school  age  to  the  total  population  is  relatively  small  and  where  the 
decrease  in  total  population  is  less  marked,  and  that  consolidated 
schools  are  located  in  townships  with  greater  wealth  per  capita 
school  population.  The  average  for  the  schools  of  this  type  is 
$4,412.00  as  compared  with  $3,251.00  in  townships  with  district 
schools.  Taking  the  tax  levies  as  a  basis  for  comparison,  we  find 
that  consolidation  requires  a  greater  amount  of  money,  not  only  for 
the  payment  of  teachers,  but  also  for  the  general  maintenance  and 
operating  expenses  of  the  schools,  as  is  shown  by  the  tuition  and 
special  school  levies  of  the  two  types  of  corporations.  This  conclu- 
sion is  not  only  substantiated  by  a  comparison  of  school  expendi- 
tures, but  we  also  observe  that  while  this  increase  is  due  in  part  to 
the  additional  cost  of  transportation  of  pupils,  there  is  also  an  in- 
crease in  practically  all  items  except  transfers.  The  average  cost  per 
pupil  in  townships  with  consolidated  schools  is  $44.85,  which  is  30 
per  cent  more  than  the  average  cost  per  pupil  in  townships  with  dis- 
trict schools,  38  per  cent  more  than  the  average  cost  per  pupil  in  city 
schools,  and  50  per  cent  more  than  in  town  schools.  When  we  con- 
sider all  these  facts  as  well  as  the  fact  that  consolidated  schools 
are  located  in  townships  with  25  per  cent  greater  wealth  per  capita, 
and  that  townships  with  consolidated  schools  spend  much  less  money 
for  the  building  and  upkeep  of  the  roads  than  do  townships  with 
district  schools,  we  see  at  once  that  it  is  not  at  all  feasible  to  adopt 
the  policy  of  consolidation  as  the  one  general  plan  of  education  in 
rural  communities,  since  it  would  be  impossible  to  finance  them 
under  the  present  organization.  The  features  in  which  the  con- 
solidated schools  surpass  the  township  district  schools  as  well  as 
the  failure  of  the  consolidated  school  to  realize  some  of  the  things 
which  have  been  claimed  for  it,  bear  out  this  conclusion.  While 
the  typical  consolidated  school  is  housed  in  a  modern  school  build- 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana     205 

ing,  a  sufficient  number  of  equally  well  equipped  one-room  rural 
school  buildings  have  been  found  to  indicate  that  these  things  are 
not  dependent  upon  this  type  of  organization  so  much  as  upon  the 
education  of  the  community  to  the  importance  of  these  things. 

The  failure  of  the  consolidated  school  to  realize  the  possibilities 
for  the  enrichment  of  the  curriculum  and  to  be  a  more  vital  factor 
in  the  social  life  of  the  pupils  as  well  as  the  community,  also  show 
that  these  things  are  not  dependent  so  much  upon  the  form  of 
organization  as  upon  initiative  and  personal  characteristics  of  the 
teachers  in  charge.  We  have  instances  reported  in  other  states 
where  the  one-room  rural  school  has  given  as  much  attention  to  the 
problems  of  the  community  and  interests  of  the  pupil  as  any  larger 
school  as  well  as  being  a  genuine  community  center.  While  it 
must  be  conceded  that  consolidation  makes  possible  a  greater  con- 
sideration of  these  things,  it  must  also  be  acknowledged  that  empha- 
sis on  the  form  of  organization  is  not  enough  to  attain  these  desired 
results.  Too  much  attention  in  the  past  has  been  given  to  form  and 
not  enough  to  the  real  work  of  consolidated  schools. 

The  results  of  this  investigation  also  show  the  need  of  further 
legislation  concerning  sanitary  conditions  of  buildings  now  in  use. 
While  the  law  provides  that  all  buildings  remodeled  and  erected 
must  conform  to  certain  standards,  it  should  also  be  provided  that 
within  a  specified  time  all  buildings  used  for  school  purposes  should 
measure  up  to  these  standards.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  two 
types  of  schools  needing  the  greatest  consideration,  the  township 
district  schools  and  the  town  schools,  would  be  greatly  aided  should 
the  state  adopt  the  plan  of  distribution  of  state  funds  on  the  com- 
bination basis  instead  of  the  census  basis.  The  results  of  this 
investigation  show,  however,  that  the  adoption  of  this  plan  of  dis- 
tribution would  be  inadequate  to  meet  the  needs  of  all  schools,  so 
should  be  supplemented  by  a  law  requiring  a  greater  tax  levy  by 
the  state  for  school  purposes  to  be  distributed  on  the  combination 
basis  suggested.  This  would  eliminate  the  necessity  of  granting 
special  state  aid  to  a  large  per  cent  of  schools  that  now  find  it 
necessary  to  avail  themselves  of  this  special  privilege,  which  has  a 
certain  tinge  of  charity  that  is  displeasing  to  some  communities. 
If  there  should  be  added  to  the  increase  in  state  tax  levy  for  school 
purposes  and  the  combination  basis  of  distribution,  a  provision  for 
special  subsidies  to  stimulate  local  communities  to  provide  superior 
equipment  and  initiate  plans  of  correlation  of  the  work  of  the  school 


2o6     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

and  community  problems,  which  would  result  in  a  knowledge  and 
appreciation  of  rural  life  and  its  opportunities,  a  good  beginning 
will  have  been  made  toward  the  solution  of  many  of  the  problems 
of  rural  education.  It  would  also  provide  for  an  equality  of  educa- 
tional advantages  and  an  equitable  distribution  of  the  burden  of 
the  schools  throughout  the  state. 

The  necessity  for  reorganization  of  the  administration  of  rural 
and  town  schools  is  emphasized  by  the  facts  revealed  by  this 
investigation.  While  consolidation  as  a  policy  of  rural  education 
has  its  advantages  and  possibilities,  these  are  frequently  offset  by 
the  criticisms  and  difficulties  encountered  in  administration  under 
the  present  organization.  When  we  find  a  number  of  schools  paying 
as  much  for  the  transportation  of  pupils  as  is  paid  teachers  for 
instruction  and  especially  when  we  find  a  township  paying  more 
than  twice  as  much  for  transportation  as  for  instruction,  we  begin 
to  wonder  if  the  interests  and  welfare  of  the  pupils  have  not  been 
sacrificed  for  the  sake  of  carrying  out  an  idea.  It  is  generally 
recognized  and  is  verified  by  the  expenditures  of  the  different 
corporations  for  transfers  and  transportation  of  pupils  that  the 
civil  township  is  not  a  natural  unit  for  consolidation.  It  frequently 
happens  that  a  small  village  or  area  of  dense  population  is  quite 
removed  from  the  center  of  the  civil  township,  so  that  to  combine 
all  the  schools  of  that  corporation  into  one,  involves  long  hauls  that 
are  objectional  to  parents  as  well  as  involving  an  unreasonable 
expenditure.  It  also  deprives  these  remote  communities  which  have 
the  greatest  needs  of  much  of  the  influence  that  a  consolidated  school 
should  have  on  that  community.  Should  the  schools  be  reorganized 
on  a  basis  that  would  eliminate  civil  township  boundaries  and  make 
it  possible  to  plan  consolidation  of  schools  with  reference  to  centers 
of  population,  topography  of  the  country,  and  condition  of  the 
roads,  many  of  these  objections  would  be  eliminated. 

In  comparing  the  expenditures  in  the  different  types  of  schools, 
it  was  pointed  out  that  the  business  administration  in  the  townships 
with  both  district  and  consolidated  schools  cost  ten  to  twelve  times 
as  much  as  the  business  administration  of  schools  in  towns  and 
cities.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  office  of  township 
trustee  is  a  political  office  which  is  supposed  to  compensate  the 
incumbent  for  trouble  and  expense  in  securing  it.  This,  however, 
is  not  the  most  serious  phase  of  the  situation  from  an  educational 
standpoint.     The  township  trustee  is  not  selected  on  account  of 


/]  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana     207 

qualifications  or  interest  in  the  schools,  but  either  on  account  of 
his  political  leadership  or  association  with  some  political  leader.  It 
also  frequently  happens  that  the  township  trustee  is  aspiring  for  some 
county  office  and  wishes  to  economize  at  the  expense  of  the  schools 
in  order  to  make  a  record  that  will  command  support  for  the 
higher  office.  These  facts  emphasize  the  need  of  a  reorganization 
that  will  eliminate  waste  and  place  the  schools  in  charge  of  men 
qualified  for  the  responsibilities  and  interested  in  the  schools  instead 
of  leaving  them  in  the  charge  of  men  interested  primarily  in  the 
financial  returns  and  political  prestige  gained  through  the  admin- 
istration of  this  office. 

A  third  reason  for  the  reorganization  of  the  rural  schools  is 
found  in  the  need  for  a  more  adequate  supervision  of  township 
districts,  consolidated,  and  town  schools.  Under  the  present  organi- 
zation and  laws  it  is  impossible  for  the  county  superintendent  to  do 
any  constructive  supervision  on  account  of  the  number  of  teachers 
under  his  jurisdiction  and  multiplicity  of  duties.  While  the  town- 
ship district  schools  suffer  most  from  lack  of  supervision,  a  reorgani- 
zation which  would  insure  a  more  adequate  supervision  of  consoli- 
dated and  town  schools  and  at  the  same  time  provide  for  a  continuity 
of  purpose  in  the  township  district  schools  is  greatly  needed.  As 
was  pointed  out  in  a  preceding  chapter,  the  principals  of  the  smaller 
schools  are  selected  with  reference  to  ability  to  teach  high  school 
subjects  rather  than  training  and  experience  in  supervising  grade 
work. 

It  has  been  shown  that  consolidation  as  a  policy  of  rural  edu- 
cation is  somewhat  limited  in  its  application  under  present  condi- 
tions. While  a  reorganization  would  make  possible  a  wider  adop- 
tion of  this  policy  there  would  still  remain  a  great  number  of  one- 
room  rural  schools  that  are  entitled  to  the  educational  advantages 
enjoyed  by  the  consolidated  schools.  Under  the  present  organiza- 
tion, where  consolidation  is  under  way,  it  is  commonly  thought 
that  little  can  be  done  for  the  improvement  of  the  township  district 
schools,  so  that  they  are  neglected  with  the  idea  that  they  may 
ultimately  become  a  part  of  the  consolidated  school  notwithstanding 
the  difficulties  that  would  be  involved.  There  is  need  for  a  reorgani- 
zation that  will  insure  the  same  consideration  and  definitely  planned 
efforts  to  meet  the  needs  of  these  communities  as  obtains  where 
schools  have  been  consolidated. 


2o8      A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

A  negative  criticism  of  any  system  of  schools  is  worth  Httle 
unless  followed  by  constructive  suggestions.  The  problems  indicated 
above  can  best  be  met  by  making  the  county  the  unit  of  school 
organization.  While  it  is  not  our  purpose  to  give  the  details  of 
such  a  reorganization,  it  would  involve  the  following: 

a.  The  election  of  a  county  board  of  education,  composed  of 
seven  to  nine  members,  which  would  have  the  management  of  the 
educational  affairs  of  the  county.  The  members  should  be  selected 
for  a  term  of  five  years  at  a  special  election  with  total  disregard 
for  political  affiliations.  They  may  be  elected  from  districts  or  from 
the  county  at  large.  The  duties  and  powers  of  this  county  board 
of  education  should  be  similar  to  the  duties  and  powers  of  the  city 
board  of  education  under  our  present  organization.  Only  traveling 
expenses  and  nominal  salary  should  be  paid  each  member. 

b.  The  selection  of  a  county  superintendent  by  the  county 
board  of  education,  who  would  be  the  chief  executive  of  the  board. 
The  county  board  should  be  free  of  all  restrictions  in  making  its 
selection  except  certain  qualifications  as  to  training  and  experience 
that  should  be  required  by  the  state  board  of  education  for  eligibility 
to  this  position.  The  salary  should  be  sufficient  to  command  the  con- 
tinued services  of  strong  well-qualified  men  for  this  important 
office. 

c.  The  county  superintendent  should  be  relieved  of  all  clerical 
duties  and  the  certification  of  teachers  and  have  in  addition  to  the 
powers  now  exercised,  the  power  to  nominate  and  place  all  teachers 
and  assistants  and  to  exercise  supervisory  power  over  all  appoint- 
ments and  work  of  the  county  board  of  education. 

d.  The  county  board  should  elect  a  secretary  or  business  mana- 
ger whose  duties  shall  be  to  act  as  secretary  of  the  board,  to  attend 
to  all  clerical  and  financial  work  of  the  office  under  the  direction  of 
the  county  superintendent  and  the  county  board  of  education,  as 
well  as  to  look  after  all  other  matters  of  this  nature,  which  usually 
fall  to  such  officials. 

e.  There  should  be  provision  made  for  a  special  supervisor  in 
each  of  the  special  subjects  such  as  agriculture,  household  art, 
manual  training,  music,  art,  etc.,  for  every  thirty  teachers  or  frac- 
tion thereof  in  the  county  and  an  assistant  superintendent  in  all 
counties  employing  more  than  fifty  teachers. 

f.  All  towns  should  be  encouraged  to  disband  local  organiza- 
tions and  become  parts  of  larger  school  units  with  the  towns  as  the 


A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana     209 

centers.  All  towns  in  which  the  principal  devotes  less  than  half  his 
time  to  supervision,  all  towns  that  do  not  provide  special  supervisory 
staff  equivalent  to  that  provided  by  the  county  organizations  and 
all  towns  that  receive  one-half  or  more  of  tuition  receipts  from  the 
common  school  fund  and  transfers,  should  be  under  the  direction 
and  supervision  of  the  county  organization. 

g.  Provision  should  be  made  whereby  a  certain  per  cent  of  the 
salaries  of  the  county  superintendent,  assistant  supermtendent,  and 
supervisor  would  be  paid  from  state  funds  before  these  funds  are 
distributed  among  the  counties  of  the  state. 

The  adoption  of  the  suggestion  made,  as  a  part  of  the  school 
code  of  the  state  and  the  reorganization  of  the  school  with  the 
county  as  a  unit,  as  outlined  above,  may  seem  to  many  to  be  Utopian 
and  too  complicated  to  be  of  practical  value.  It  should  be  kept  in 
mind,  however,  that  the  present  system  with  its  changing,  shifting, 
teaching  population,  unprofessional  and  oftentimes  insufficient 
business  administration  and  lack  of  supervision,  does  not  provide 
an  adequate  basis  on  which  to  build  an  organization  that  will  meet 
the  present  needs.  If  any  real  progress  is  to  be  made  it  is  impera- 
tive that  we  have  a  strong  centralized  school  organization  with  edu- 
cational experts  in  charge.  The  changes  suggested  are  not  Utopian 
and  impractical,  since  many  of  them  are  in  actual  operation  in  other 
states.  The  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  has  just 
issued  a  rural  school  letter  describing  the  undivided  districts  in 
Minnesota,  which  have  many  of  the  characteristics  of  the  organiza- 
tion suggested  above.    His  closing  statement  is  as  follows : 

"There  is  close  supervision  of  the  rural  schools.  A  corps  of 
supervisors  go  from  the  central  school  at  Grand  Rapids  to  all  the 
villages  and  one- teacher  schools.  Thus,  for  example,  the  manual 
training  instructor,  the  domestic  science  teacher,  and  agricultural 
supervisor,  or  their  assistants,  spend  a  certain  number  of  hours 
each  week  with  all  the  schools  in  the  outlying  districts.  This  means 
that  the  teacher  of  the  little  school  is  under  the  immediate  direc- 
tion of  supervisors  of  the  high  school  at  Grand  Rapids.  It  means 
satisfactory  supervision  and  intelligent  and  efficient  work." 

It  should  also  be  kept  in  mind  that  Indiana  has  already  taken 
some  steps  in  the  direction  suggested  by  providing  a  county  agent 
who  devotes  his  time  to  advancing  agriculture,  domestic  science, 
and  industrial  work  in  the  county.  On  account  of  lack  of  unity  of 
purpose  and  the  amount  of  territory  he  has  to  cover,  it  will  be  dif- 


210     A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Four  Types  of  Schools  of  Indiana 

ficult  to  accomplish  the  things  that  could  be  accomplished  under 
more  favorable  conditions.  A  reorganization  which  would  more 
definitely  correlate  this  work  with  the  regular  work  of  the  school 
and  provide  for  supervisors  in  related  activities  who  would  be  free 
during  the  summer  months  to  assist  in  directing  practical  work  in 
the  homes  of  the  pupil  as  well  as  to  assist  in  developing  community 
interests  and  activities,  would  make  possible  great  progress  along 
these  lines. 

The  effect  of  such  a  reorganization  would  be  observed  in  all 
schools,  but  would  be  most  pronounced  in  the  two  types,  the  town- 
ship district  and  town  schools,  which  have  the  greatest  needs.  It 
would  result  in  better  equipment,  efficient  business  administration, 
more  permanent  teaching  population,  continuity  of  educational 
policy,  adequate  supervision  and  professional  leadership,  which  are 
essential  for  real  progress. 


VITA 

Lester  Burton  Rogers,  bom  near  Seymour,  Indiana,  Novem- 
ber 4,  1875 ;  received  his  elementary  education  in  the  public  schools 
of  his  native  state;  completed  the  work  of  Moores  Hill  Academy 
in  1893;  entered  Moores  Hill  College  in  1895  ^^^  graduated  with 
the  B.S.  degree  in  1899.  His  post-graduate  work  consists  of  one 
year  (1902-1903)  in  Chicago  University  and  two  years  (1906-1907 
and  1910-1911)  in  Columbia  University.  He  received  the  Master 
of  Arts  degree  from  Columbia  in  1907  and  was  awarded  a  "Re- 
search Scholarship"  in  Teachers  College  for  the  year  1910-1911. 
His  published  works  consist  of  a  Laboratory  Manual  for  Physics, 
a  series  of  articles  on  Physical  Nature-study  and  a  Syllabus  for 
Secondary  Education. 


' 

j^^^^^ 

f          UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRAR^ 

YC  03219 


Sililii 


